This three-part series takes on one of America's most important founding fathers, John Adams. John Adams’ contributions to the founding, development, and success of the United States was unrivaled by others of his generation. In this series, I will examine John Adams’ life and contributions to the United States from three perspectives. First, John Adams the patriot here. Second, John Adams the diplomat here. Third, John Adams the Statesman.
Here, Avery looks more closely at John Adams as a statesman and president.
A portrait of John Adams, c. 1792/93.
Introduction
At the time of John Adams appointment to Britain, he had served in the diplomatic service for nearly eight years, and on June 1, 1785, that service would culminate into the great crescendo of his diplomatic career. Because on this day, Adams had his first audience with King George III, the King that multitudes bled and died to obtain freedom from. In this meeting, Adams tells King George of his honor to serve in his position, and his hope of restoring an amicable relationship between two nations that “though separated by an ocean and under different governments, have the same language, a similar religion, and kindred blood.” King George responded in kind, assuring Adams that he was only doing his duty in prosecuting the war in America, but accepted the end of the conflict and the results of that conflict. Additionally, assuring Adams that he was thankful it was him who received the appointment. And it was with this that the meeting ended, and Adams penultimate diplomatic moment came to an end. However, it was only the beginning of the legacy he would leave as a statesman.
London
Despite missing the friends, home, and community that they had grown to love in Paris, Adams' family quickly adapted to life in London. Abigail and Nabby attended the Queens drawing room, showing that Mr. Adams was not the only diplomat in the family. Additionally, the family moved into a home at Grosvenor Square and began their life in London in earnest. The family regularly attended church, and John Adams was able to reunite with friends that fled the revolution in America for their home nation.
The task at hand was a difficult one, and Adams was frequently attacked in the press (likely by loyalists in London) for being ill-suited for his station as minister. The task given to Minister Adams was nearly impossible due to the position of strength of Britain and the immense struggles that America was facing. Adams had to find a way to open trade with Britain, but first he had to make the British willing to meet at the negotiating table. The British did not need trade with the United States, but they knew that America desperately needed trade with Britain and its other territories. Because of this, Britain slowed down negotiations or simply did not meet with Adams at all. In doing so, Britain maintained firm control as the leading trader in the world. Additionally, the British were reluctant to abandon military forts in North America, a direct violation of the Treaty of Paris. Adams would attempt to resolve this problem as well; however, it would not truly be resolved until many years later in the Jay Treaty.
An additional hindrance to trade was the Barbary states of North Africa, or the Barbary Pirates, comprising Algiers, Tunis, Morocco, and Tripoli. Pirates from these North African states raided American shipping in the Mediterranean, greatly damaging American trade abroad, and forcing insurance rates to skyrocket. Cash payments were required to the various states, called tribute, and had formerly been paid by Britain when the colonists were under the crown's protection. But now, with their newfound independence, America was required to pay up - or fight. This was made clear in July of 1785 when two American ships were seized by the Barbary state of Algiers. The sailors aboard these ships were enslaved and kept in terrible conditions. Congress allocated funds to be made available for the negotiation of tribute to the nation, however it was a paltry sum compared to the likely price of tribute - as Adams was soon to find out.
Adams, in a tobacco smoke and coffee fueled meeting, discussed the prospect of tribute with the Envoy of the Sultan of Tripoli, His Excellency Abdrahaman. In this meeting, Abdrahaman informed Adams that America and Tripoli were at war, and this war would only be ended by a peace treaty - and money. Adams quickly dashed off a letter to Thomas Jefferson in Paris imploring him to come to London and assist with Barbary negotiations. Jefferson arrived in March of 1786, and the two soon met with Abdrahaman, being informed that peace would cost roughly 30,000 guineas as well as 3,000 pounds sterling for himself. A sum that was only a small portion of what peace would cost for all of the Barbary states. In later conversations, Adams and Jefferson debated the appropriate course of action regarding tribute. Jefferson in favor of immediate war, and not a penny spent for tribute. Conversely, Adams felt strongly that a Navy was necessary to ensure America was not extorted but felt that for time it was best to pay the tribute.
The Constitution
Adams, seeing the changes occurring in American government and a constitutional convention occurring soon, set off to write a document that would explain and defend what he felt was the best course of action for America to adopt regarding a constitution. The document was titled A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America, and was ready for print in January of 1787. The document focused heavily on the government being broken into three branches each with checks and balances over the others. The work was praised by Jefferson and Benjamin Rush, with both stating that it should be used as a framework for the constitutional convention. Amazingly, even James Madison, one rarely to compliment Adams, stated that the work had merit. Adams soon received a copy of the constitution he had dreamt of and was disappointed in the lack of a “declaration of rights,” but was overall pleased with the document. Jefferson was less sanguine about the constitution, specifically the role of the President and the power he would wield.
Bound for Boston
Adams and Abigail knew it was time to wrap up their years of service abroad, as they had accomplished all that they felt they could in London. Adams requested he be recalled to America but was informed he needed to travel to Holland one more time. He would negotiate another loan, in addition to formally relinquishing his title.
On June 17, 1788, Adams and his family sighted the Massachusetts shore for the first time in years, and were shortly ashore greeted by cheering friends, family, and admirers all excited to welcome home the diplomat from London. Much of the first weeks were taken up with reunions, meetings, lodging arrangements, and unpacking. But all the while, there was talk of Adams for a multitude of government positions from governor, judge, and vice president. However, the most likely position was that of vice president. Adams stated, albeit not publicly, that he would accept the vice presidency and nothing less. The election of 1789 was different from the US elections that we know today, in which the popular vote determines the electors for a specific state and candidate. Electors were employed for the purpose of casting a vote for a candidate, just as they are today, but these electors were chosen by the state legislatures - each casting two votes. The individual with the most votes became president and the second most was named vice president. This system worked well in the first two elections; however, it would eventually be changed as a result of the election of 1800.
Vice President
The final count of the 1789 election was a unanimous choice (69 electors) for George Washington as president. And, 34 electors voted for Adams, who was deeply hurt by receiving less than half the vote - although still enough votes for him to easily win the title of vice president. Despite his initial frustration at the overall outcome, Adams was proud to be the first vice president of the United States. Much as he had for each of his prior positions in government, Adams was nervous about his ability to ably perform his duties. These nerves led him, on April 21 when sitting before the Senate for the first time to remark, that he would do his best to allow open debate on the senate floor, and only interject when he felt it necessary, treat all members with requisite cordiality, and attempt to uphold the honor of his office.
Shortly after Adams assumed his role of vice president, he accompanied Washington to the dais of Federal Hall in New York to receive his oath of office as the first president of the United States on April 30, 1789. And with this, the first constitutional government of the United States commenced in full.
During Adams time in the senate, he oversaw many difficult discussions, and led debate on a variety of issues with both domestic and international significance. Some of these issues, such as the title that should be held was Washington, were of small concern and were made into larger issues than was truly necessary (largely by Adams - who felt that titles were important to encourage the best candidates to accept public office). He also directed the Senate on such issues such as the assumption bill, created by Alexander Hamilton, which would allow the federal government to assume the debts of the 13 states. Also, Adams oversaw debate on the new location of a capital, with the government temporarily moving to Philadelphia before its permanent location on the Potomac River in Virginia. Adams was also vice president during the early years of the French Revolution, and the storming of the bastille prison in reaction to the difficult political, economic, and social condition of the French citizenry.
Second Term
In 1792, Washington and Adams were elected to another term in office. Washington was again unanimously elected (132 votes), with Adams receiving 77 electoral votes. A much higher margin than in the previous election. Little did the two know that the next four years would be more dubious and treacherous than the prior four years. Largely, this was due to the French Revolution, and the uproar that it caused in France, America, and in Washington's cabinet. Jefferson was a supporter of the French, and the remainder of the cabinet (specifically Hamilton) were supporters of the British. Cabinet relationships would be further strained due to the arrival of Edmund Charles Genêt as the French Minister to the United States. Genêt, arriving in South Carolina, spent an excessive amount of time attempting to drum up support for American involvement on the side of France during the war. The cabinet, including the supposed Francophile Jefferson, became furious with this attempt to end American neutrality, sending word to France requesting his recall. Eventually, Washington granted Genêt asylum as he was facing death for his actions in America.The controversy over banking, the French, assumption, and other issues isolated Jefferson, as he was the only non-federalist member of the cabinet. He attempted to resign many times, with Washington finally relenting and accepting his resignation. Jefferson left office December 31, 1793. Despite his differences with the cabinet, Jefferson had been very successful in his position as Secretary of State, and his resignation ended the continuity heretofore seen in the government.
Adams often felt that his position was useless, and he had no real work of any consequence. This led to periods of melancholy that were evident in his correspondence and in his public appearance. However, his mood nearly almost always improved at the mention of his family. Specifically, Adams was always eager to hear about the progress of his eldest son, John Quincy Adams. The two had become very close during their time together overseas, spending more time together than with any other members of their family. And, in May of 1794, Adams' pride was evident at the appointment of John Quincy Adams to be U.S Minister to the Netherlands. With this, John Quincy began a diplomatic career that was only rivaled by his fathers.
Adams was very pleased at having his son in the foreign service, however other diplomatic relationships were not as favorable. The Jay treaty was signed in London, in which John Jay was attempting to resolve long standing issues that Adams had attempted to resolve during his time there. However, Jay achieved very little that Americans desired, left many issues unresolved, and only gained a few small “crumbs” associated with trade and the vacating of troops from American Forts. Americans were furious with the treaty, bemoaning the lack of protection for sailors, lack of open and free trade, and concessions made on behalf of the American delegates. However, the treaty, Adams felt, was the best that could be obtained at the time. The country was in an uproar regarding the treaty, with many hoping Congress would not ratify it. Tempers were so high that Jay was burned in effigy across the country. Despite objections, Congress eventually ratified the treaty, despite its flaws as they too felt it was the best that could be achieved.
In the summer of 1796, Adams retired to his home to enjoy tranquility and peace before the end of his term as vice president. He and Abigail knew it was possible, if not likely, that he would become president, sending them into another few years of hard labor for the country they so dearly loved. Adams ended his sojourn at his home in December of 1796 and returned to Philadelphia. When he arrived, the news was all about the election. Reports changed daily with the winner being reported as Jefferson one day and Adams another. Adams was reluctant to believe he would be president, but it soon became apparent that he would be the next president of the United States.
President
On March 4, 1797, John Adams became President John Adams, which represented the final act to a lifelong commitment to the nation. Adams inauguration was a sad one for many, because it was the end of George Washingtons’ leadership of the nation. Washington had been the de facto leader since the early years of the revolution, but the government was now in the hands of Adams and Jefferson. And trouble started after a short, calm period in which bipartisanship appeared to be possible. The French Revolution was in full swing, and the Directory (the five-member governing council of France) took the Jay treaty to be a commercial and military alliance between the two nations. Which would be in direct violation to the Treaties signed by America during their own revolution. Adams needed to send a commission to France in order to work out the issues that were plaguing the nations. He spoke to Jefferson about sending James Madison, but Jefferson informed him that it was unlikely Madison would accept. Eventually, Jefferson spoke to Madison on the issue - receiving the expected “no”. When he relayed this to Adams, Jefferson was informed Adams had a change of heart, and he was not to send Madison anyway. Jefferson took this to mean he was taking orders from the high Federalists and would not be independent or willing to allow democrat-republicans to serve in high level positions. At this moment, Jefferson and Adams ended all correspondence, and no longer worked alongside each other as they had done for so much of their careers.
Despite this damaged relationship, Adams still had a responsibility to resolve issues with the French as peacefully as possible. Adams' best efforts were all foiled when the French refused to meet with the newly appointed Minister to France, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. The directory was furious with the Jay Treaty, and began issuing letters of marque to French privateers allowing them to raid American shipping and capture vessels. This naval tension escalated and eventually became a quasi-war.
Due to Frances’ response, Adams sent Elbridge Gerry and John Marshall to accompany Pinckney in Paris in an effort to negotiate a peaceful resolution to the Quasi-war, and to restore trade among the two nations. However, the ministers would not be welcomed by the ministry without first paying three intermediaries – Jean Conrad Hottinguer ( X), Pierre Bellamy (Y), and Lucien Hauteval (Z), a large sum of money, money to the French Ministry, and a loan to the French government. The ministers refused to do so, and thus were not allowed discussions regarding peace. When word reached Adams, he was seething over the treatment of American ministers. He immediately requested that Congress make funds available for American defense in the event that war broke out. Congress gave Adams everything he asked for, allowing for defenses to be constructed, arming of merchant ships, and the building of a Navy.
During this time, Adams was very popular, and was riding high on a wave of patriotism not seen since the revolution. However, war fever caused him to support the alien and sedition acts, which violated the first amendment rights of Americans in limiting speech about the government and government officials. However, many prominent members of society, including George Washington, felt that it was beneficial that libelous publications and individuals be treated harshly. Pushback on the act was strong and led to a decrease in Adams overall approval. Fortunately for Adams, reactions were calmed by the fear of war and thus allowed him some grace that he would have been unlikely to receive at other times in history.
Another preparation for war was Adams' appointment of George Washington to commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Adams felt that Washington was the best suited American to fill this role, but his plans were soon hijacked by Alexander Hamilton when George Washington appointed him second in command. Adams was skeptical of Hamilton and felt that he was a “designing man.” Because of this, Adams did not want to see Hamilton in such a prominent place but was faced with little choice as Washington would not continue in the position without this arrangement. Adams' frustration at this was cooled by the news from Elbridge Gerry informing Adams that peace with France was possible, and the directory is willing to accept ministers from the US.
Despite the potential calm, Adams had Washington continue military buildup, in the event of war breaking out in earnest. In a final effort of peace, Adams appointed William Vans Murray to be minister plenipotentiary to France along with Oliver Ellsworth and William Davie as peace commissioners on October 16, 1799. The commissioners sailed for Paris on November 15, 1799.
In May of 1800 one of Adams' most difficult administrative issues came to a head in an explosive verbal tirade directed at Secretary of War James McHenry. Adams had felt that his cabinet (specifically McHenry and Pickering) frequently worked for the interest of Alexander Hamilton and the high federalists more than for himself or the nation. After this fiery meeting, Adams requests his resignation, as well as that of his secretary of state, Timothy Pickering. Adams felt that both were attempting to disrupt peace negotiations with France and hoped for all-out war - something he despised. With the termination of Pickering, Adams wisely selected John Marshall to serve as his new secretary of state.
Election of 1800
The election of 1800 was nothing like the prior three elections and showed errors in the American electoral system that were merely masked by the steadying presence of George Washington. With Washington's absence, party differences came to a head, leading to a cutthroat election. Hamilton, still angry about Adams' termination of Pickering and McHenry, worked tirelessly to end his career. Even releasing a pamphlet questioning his intelligence, character, and ability to serve. Hamilton's interference likely had a role in the final result of the election. The election results were tight with Jefferson and Aaron Burr receiving 73 votes, and Adams receiving 65.
This meant that Adams' career was effectively over. However, he received news in late 1800 that peace with Paris was achieved. This allowed Adams to exit office with a firm conscience that he had done his duty as president. Finally, in a last act as president, Adams made the controversial appointment of midnight judges and appointed John Marshall to the position of Chief Justice - replacing the resigning Oliver Ellsworth. Some of these appointments would not be maintained, but Adams' appointment of Marshall became one of the most important decisions of his career as it helped to shape the identity of the highest court in the nation.
John Adams departed Washington on March 4, 1801, never to return again as he left Thomas Jefferson to take the reins of government. Eventually after both men retired from politics, they began to correspond again, rekindling the friendship that grew in Philadelphia and Paris. Providentially, on July 4, 1826, John Adams died just hours after his friend Jefferson. The two men hoped to live to see one final Independence Day, to which they were both successful. On this day, America lost not one, but two of the greatest statesmen that have ever served the American public.
What do you think of John Adams as a statesman? Let us know below.
Now read Avery’s article on the role of privateers in the American Revolution here.
