Founding Father John Adams - Part 3: Statesman

This three-part series takes on one of America's most important founding fathers, John Adams. John Adams’ contributions to the founding, development, and success of the United States was unrivaled by others of his generation. In this series, I will examine John Adams’ life and contributions to the United States from three perspectives. First, John Adams the patriot here. Second, John Adams the diplomat here. Third, John Adams the Statesman.

Here, Avery looks more closely at John Adams as a statesman and president.

A portrait of John Adams, c. 1792/93.

Introduction

At the time of John Adams appointment to Britain, he had served in the diplomatic service for nearly eight years, and on June 1, 1785, that service would culminate into the great crescendo of his diplomatic career. Because on this day, Adams had his first audience with King George III, the King that multitudes bled and died to obtain freedom from. In this meeting, Adams tells King George of his honor to serve in his position, and his hope of restoring an amicable relationship between two nations that “though separated by an ocean and under different governments, have the same language, a similar religion, and kindred blood.” King George responded in kind, assuring Adams that he was only doing his duty in prosecuting the war in America, but accepted the end of the conflict and the results of that conflict. Additionally, assuring Adams that he was thankful it was him who received the appointment. And it was with this that the meeting ended, and Adams penultimate diplomatic moment came to an end. However, it was only the beginning of the legacy he would leave as a statesman.

London

Despite missing the friends, home, and community that they had grown to love in Paris, Adams' family quickly adapted to life in London.  Abigail and Nabby attended the Queens drawing room, showing that Mr. Adams was not the only diplomat in the family. Additionally, the family moved into a home at Grosvenor Square and began their life in London in earnest. The family regularly attended church, and John Adams was able to reunite with friends that fled the revolution in America for their home nation.

The task at hand was a difficult one, and Adams was frequently attacked in the press (likely by loyalists in London) for being ill-suited for his station as minister. The task given to Minister Adams was nearly impossible due to the position of strength of Britain and the immense struggles that America was facing. Adams had to find a way to open trade with Britain, but first he had to make the British willing to meet at the negotiating table. The British did not need trade with the United States, but they knew that America desperately needed trade with Britain and its other territories. Because of this, Britain slowed down negotiations or simply did not meet with Adams at all. In doing so, Britain maintained firm control as the leading trader in the world. Additionally, the British were reluctant to abandon military forts in North America, a direct violation of the Treaty of Paris. Adams would attempt to resolve this problem as well; however, it would not truly be resolved until many years later in the Jay Treaty.

An additional hindrance to trade was the Barbary states of North Africa, or the Barbary Pirates, comprising Algiers, Tunis, Morocco, and Tripoli. Pirates from these North African states raided American shipping in the Mediterranean, greatly damaging American trade abroad, and forcing insurance rates to skyrocket. Cash payments were required to the various states, called tribute, and had formerly been paid by Britain when the colonists were under the crown's protection. But now, with their newfound independence, America was required to pay up - or fight. This was made clear in July of 1785 when two American ships were seized by the Barbary state of Algiers. The sailors aboard these ships were enslaved and kept in terrible conditions. Congress allocated funds to be made available for the negotiation of tribute to the nation, however it was a paltry sum compared to the likely price of tribute - as Adams was soon to find out.

Adams, in a tobacco smoke and coffee fueled meeting, discussed the prospect of tribute with the Envoy of the Sultan of Tripoli, His Excellency Abdrahaman. In this meeting, Abdrahaman informed Adams that America and Tripoli were at war, and this war would only be ended by a peace treaty - and money. Adams quickly dashed off a letter to Thomas Jefferson in Paris imploring him to come to London and assist with Barbary negotiations. Jefferson arrived in March of 1786, and the two soon met with Abdrahaman, being informed that peace would cost roughly 30,000 guineas as well as 3,000 pounds sterling for himself. A sum that was only a small portion of what peace would cost for all of the Barbary states. In later conversations, Adams and Jefferson debated the appropriate course of action regarding tribute. Jefferson in favor of immediate war, and not a penny spent for tribute. Conversely, Adams felt strongly that a Navy was necessary to ensure America was not extorted but felt that for time it was best to pay the tribute.

The Constitution

Adams, seeing the changes occurring in American government and a constitutional convention occurring soon, set off to write a document that would explain and defend what he felt was the best course of action for America to adopt regarding a constitution. The document was titled A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America, and was ready for print in January of 1787. The document focused heavily on the government being broken into three branches each with checks and balances over the others. The work was praised by Jefferson and Benjamin Rush, with both stating that it should be used as a framework for the constitutional convention. Amazingly, even James Madison, one rarely to compliment Adams, stated that the work had merit. Adams soon received a copy of the constitution he had dreamt of and was disappointed in the lack of a “declaration of rights,” but was overall pleased with the document. Jefferson was less sanguine about the constitution, specifically the role of the President and the power he would wield.

Bound for Boston

Adams and Abigail knew it was time to wrap up their years of service abroad, as they had accomplished all that they felt they could in London. Adams requested he be recalled to America but was informed he needed to travel to Holland one more time. He would negotiate another loan, in addition to formally relinquishing his title.

On June 17, 1788, Adams and his family sighted the Massachusetts shore for the first time in years, and were shortly ashore greeted by cheering friends, family, and admirers all excited to welcome home the diplomat from London. Much of the first weeks were taken up with reunions, meetings, lodging arrangements, and unpacking. But all the while, there was talk of Adams for a multitude of government positions from governor, judge, and vice president. However, the most likely position was that of vice president. Adams stated, albeit not publicly, that he would accept the vice presidency and nothing less. The election of 1789 was different from the US elections that we know today, in which the popular vote determines the electors for a specific state and candidate. Electors were employed for the purpose of casting a vote for a candidate, just as they are today, but these electors were chosen by the state legislatures - each casting two votes. The individual with the most votes became president and the second most was named vice president. This system worked well in the first two elections; however, it would eventually be changed as a result of the election of 1800.

Vice President

The final count of the 1789 election was a unanimous choice (69 electors) for George Washington as president. And, 34 electors voted for Adams, who was deeply hurt by receiving less than half the vote - although still enough votes for him to easily win the title of vice president. Despite his initial frustration at the overall outcome, Adams was proud to be the first vice president of the United States. Much as he had for each of his prior positions in government, Adams was nervous about his ability to ably perform his duties. These nerves led him, on April 21 when sitting before the Senate for the first time to remark, that he would do his best to allow open debate on the senate floor, and only interject when he felt it necessary, treat all members with requisite cordiality, and attempt to uphold the honor of his office.

Shortly after Adams assumed his role of vice president, he accompanied Washington to the dais of Federal Hall in New York to receive his oath of office as the first president of the United States on April 30, 1789. And with this, the first constitutional government of the United States commenced in full.

During Adams time in the senate, he oversaw many difficult discussions, and led debate on a variety of issues with both domestic and international significance. Some of these issues, such as the title that should be held was Washington, were of small concern and were made into larger issues than was truly necessary (largely by Adams - who felt that titles were important to encourage the best candidates to accept public office). He also directed the Senate on such issues such as the assumption bill, created by Alexander Hamilton, which would allow the federal government to assume the debts of the 13 states. Also, Adams oversaw debate on the new location of a capital, with the government temporarily moving to Philadelphia before its permanent location on the Potomac River in Virginia. Adams was also vice president during the early years of the French Revolution, and the storming of the bastille prison in reaction to the difficult political, economic, and social condition of the French citizenry.

Second Term

In 1792, Washington and Adams were elected to another term in office. Washington was again unanimously elected (132 votes), with Adams receiving 77 electoral votes.  A much higher margin than in the previous election. Little did the two know that the next four years would be more dubious and treacherous than the prior four years. Largely, this was due to the French Revolution, and the uproar that it caused in France, America, and in Washington's cabinet. Jefferson was a supporter of the French, and the remainder of the cabinet (specifically Hamilton) were supporters of the British. Cabinet relationships would be further strained due to the arrival of Edmund Charles Genêt as the French Minister to the United States. Genêt, arriving in South Carolina, spent an excessive amount of time attempting to drum up support for American involvement on the side of France during the war. The cabinet, including the supposed Francophile Jefferson, became furious with this attempt to end American neutrality, sending word to France requesting his recall. Eventually, Washington granted Genêt asylum as he was facing death for his actions in America.The controversy over banking, the French, assumption, and other issues isolated Jefferson, as he was the only non-federalist member of the cabinet. He attempted to resign many times, with Washington finally relenting and accepting his resignation. Jefferson left office December 31, 1793. Despite his differences with the cabinet, Jefferson had been very successful in his position as Secretary of State, and his resignation ended the continuity heretofore seen in the government.

Adams often felt that his position was useless, and he had no real work of any consequence. This led to periods of melancholy that were evident in his correspondence and in his public appearance. However, his mood nearly almost always improved at the mention of his family. Specifically, Adams was always eager to hear about the progress of his eldest son, John Quincy Adams. The two had become very close during their time together overseas, spending more time together than with any other members of their family. And, in May of 1794, Adams' pride was evident at the appointment of John Quincy Adams to be U.S Minister to the Netherlands. With this, John Quincy began a diplomatic career that was only rivaled by his fathers.

Adams was very pleased at having his son in the foreign service, however other diplomatic relationships were not as favorable. The Jay treaty was signed in London, in which John Jay was attempting to resolve long standing issues that Adams had attempted to resolve during his time there.  However, Jay achieved very little that Americans desired, left many issues unresolved, and only gained a few small “crumbs” associated with trade and the vacating of troops from American Forts. Americans were furious with the treaty, bemoaning the lack of protection for sailors, lack of open and free trade, and concessions made on behalf of the American delegates. However, the treaty, Adams felt, was the best that could be obtained at the time. The country was in an uproar regarding the treaty, with many hoping Congress would not ratify it. Tempers were so high that Jay was burned in effigy across the country. Despite objections, Congress eventually ratified the treaty, despite its flaws as they too felt it was the best that could be achieved.

In the summer of 1796, Adams retired to his home to enjoy tranquility and peace before the end of his term as vice president. He and Abigail knew it was possible, if not likely, that he would become president, sending them into another few years of hard labor for the country they so dearly loved. Adams ended his sojourn at his home in December of 1796 and returned to Philadelphia. When he arrived, the news was all about the election. Reports changed daily with the winner being reported as Jefferson one day and Adams another. Adams was reluctant to believe he would be president, but it soon became apparent that he would be the next president of the United States.

President

On March 4, 1797, John Adams became President John Adams, which represented the final act to a lifelong commitment to the nation. Adams inauguration was a sad one for many, because it was the end of George Washingtons’ leadership of the nation. Washington had been the de facto leader since the early years of the revolution, but the government was now in the hands of Adams and Jefferson. And trouble started after a short, calm period in which bipartisanship appeared to be possible. The French Revolution was in full swing, and the Directory (the five-member governing council of France) took the Jay treaty to be a commercial and military alliance between the two nations. Which would be in direct violation to the Treaties signed by America during their own revolution. Adams needed to send a commission to France in order to work out the issues that were plaguing the nations. He spoke to Jefferson about sending James Madison, but Jefferson informed him that it was unlikely Madison would accept. Eventually, Jefferson spoke to Madison on the issue - receiving the expected “no”. When he relayed this to Adams, Jefferson was informed Adams had a change of heart, and he was not to send Madison anyway. Jefferson took this to mean he was taking orders from the high Federalists and would not be independent or willing to allow democrat-republicans to serve in high level positions. At this moment, Jefferson and Adams ended all correspondence, and no longer worked alongside each other as they had done for so much of their careers.

Despite this damaged relationship, Adams still had a responsibility to resolve issues with the French as peacefully as possible. Adams' best efforts were all foiled when the French refused to meet with the newly appointed Minister to France, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. The directory was furious with the Jay Treaty, and began issuing letters of marque to French privateers allowing them to raid American shipping and capture vessels. This naval tension escalated and eventually became a quasi-war.

Due to Frances’ response, Adams sent Elbridge Gerry and John Marshall to accompany Pinckney in Paris in an effort to negotiate a peaceful resolution to the Quasi-war, and to restore trade among the two nations. However, the ministers would not be welcomed by the ministry without first paying three intermediaries – Jean Conrad Hottinguer ( X), Pierre Bellamy (Y), and Lucien Hauteval (Z), a large sum of money, money to the French Ministry, and a loan to the French government. The ministers refused to do so, and thus were not allowed discussions regarding peace. When word reached Adams, he was seething over the treatment of American ministers. He immediately requested that Congress make funds available for American defense in the event that war broke out. Congress gave Adams everything he asked for, allowing for defenses to be constructed, arming of merchant ships, and the building of a Navy.

During this time, Adams was very popular, and was riding high on a wave of patriotism not seen since the revolution. However, war fever caused him to support the alien and sedition acts, which violated the first amendment rights of Americans in limiting speech about the government and government officials. However, many prominent members of society, including George Washington, felt that it was beneficial that libelous publications and individuals be treated harshly. Pushback on the act was strong and led to a decrease in Adams overall approval. Fortunately for Adams, reactions were calmed by the fear of war and thus allowed him some grace that he would have been unlikely to receive at other times in history.

Another preparation for war was Adams' appointment of George Washington to commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Adams felt that Washington was the best suited American to fill this role, but his plans were soon hijacked by Alexander Hamilton when George Washington appointed him second in command. Adams was skeptical of Hamilton and felt that he was a “designing man.” Because of this, Adams did not want to see Hamilton in such a prominent place but was faced with little choice as Washington would not continue in the position without this arrangement. Adams' frustration at this was cooled by the news from Elbridge Gerry informing Adams that peace with France was possible, and the directory is willing to accept ministers from the US.

Despite the potential calm, Adams had Washington continue military buildup, in the event of war breaking out in earnest. In a final effort of peace, Adams appointed William Vans Murray to be minister plenipotentiary to France along with Oliver Ellsworth and William Davie as peace commissioners on October 16, 1799. The commissioners sailed for Paris on November 15, 1799.

In May of 1800 one of Adams' most difficult administrative issues came to a head in an explosive verbal tirade directed at Secretary of War James McHenry. Adams had felt that his cabinet (specifically McHenry and Pickering) frequently worked for the interest of Alexander Hamilton and the high federalists more than for himself or the nation. After this fiery meeting, Adams requests his resignation, as well as that of his secretary of state, Timothy Pickering. Adams felt that both were attempting to disrupt peace negotiations with France and hoped for all-out war - something he despised. With the termination of Pickering, Adams wisely selected John Marshall to serve as his new secretary of state.

Election of 1800

The election of 1800 was nothing like the prior three elections and showed errors in the American electoral system that were merely masked by the steadying presence of George Washington. With Washington's absence, party differences came to a head, leading to a cutthroat election. Hamilton, still angry about Adams' termination of Pickering and McHenry, worked tirelessly to end his career. Even releasing a pamphlet questioning his intelligence, character, and ability to serve. Hamilton's interference likely had a role in the final result of the election. The election results were tight with Jefferson and Aaron Burr receiving 73 votes, and Adams receiving 65.

This meant that Adams' career was effectively over. However, he received news in late 1800 that peace with Paris was achieved. This allowed Adams to exit office with a firm conscience that he had done his duty as president. Finally, in a last act as president, Adams made the controversial appointment of midnight judges and appointed John Marshall to the position of Chief Justice - replacing the resigning Oliver Ellsworth. Some of these appointments would not be maintained, but Adams' appointment of Marshall became one of the most important decisions of his career as it helped to shape the identity of the highest court in the nation.

John Adams departed Washington on March 4, 1801, never to return again as he left Thomas Jefferson to take the reins of government. Eventually after both men retired from politics, they began to correspond again, rekindling the friendship that grew in Philadelphia and Paris. Providentially, on July 4, 1826, John Adams died just hours after his friend Jefferson. The two men hoped to live to see one final Independence Day, to which they were both successful. On this day, America lost not one, but two of the greatest statesmen that have ever served the American public.

What do you think of John Adams as a statesman? Let us know below.

Now read Avery’s article on the role of privateers in the American Revolution here.

Founding Father John Adams - Part 2: Diplomat

This three-part series takes on one of America's most important founding fathers, John Adams. John Adams’ contributions to the founding, development, and success of the United States was unrivaled by others of his generation. In this series, Avery Scott examines John Adams’ life and contributions to the United States from three perspectives. First, John Adams the patriot here. Second, John Adams the diplomat. Third, John Adams the Statesman.

Here, Avery looks more closely at John Adams as a diplomat across Europe.

A portrait of John Adams in 1785 (shown here in black and white). By Mather Brown

Introduction

John Adams served his country in the diplomatic service for much of his life. Eventually, becoming the most experienced foreign diplomat in service, he was called upon to negotiate some of the new nation's most difficult situations. Despite Adams future successes, his diplomatic career began with a torrent of failures.

Lord Howe

After the signing of the Declaration of Independence, the war took a turn for the worst with British forces commencing hostilities on New York. The troops under control of General Washington showed their inexperience and lack of discipline when attacked by professional soldiers. Many soldiers ran from their post, deserting the field and in their wake, leaving behind weapons and powder already in short supply. Fortunately, brave Marylander’s under the command of Lord Stirling guarded the retreating army, making a retreat possible - despite suffering heavy casualties.

Washington knew that his men had to reach safety quickly, as he expected a British armanda to arrive shortly to blockade his overwhelmed Army. Gen. Washington brilliantly developed a plan to retreat across the East river under cover of darkness and fog thanks to brave Massachusetts seafarers who conducted the soldiers' safe passage throughout the night. While the defeat was difficult, the escape was a small silver lining to an otherwise dark cloud. Washington saved the bulk of the Army to fight another day, but learned how weak the force was that he was defend the nation. Soon the news of the battle and escape arrived to Congress, as did paroled General John Sullivan bearing news of Admiral Lord Howe’s desire to speak with a delegation from the colonies regarding an “accommodation.” Adams stood firm that no such meeting should occur, however he was overruled by the greater majority of Congress. Ironically, despite his objections, Adams was selected as one of three members who should meet with Howe on Staten Island. The other two members selected were Benjamin Franklin and Edward Rutledge. So on September 11, 1776 the three commissioners met with Admiral Lord Howe to discuss Howe’s proposal of “re-union” of the colonies to their rightful allegiance to the crown. It was here that Adams began a diplomatic career that would change the fate of America.

France

After the meeting with Admiral Lord Howe, which proved to be a worthless endeavor, and the sting of the loss at New York fresh on their mind, Congress began deliberations to find new ways of recruiting and maintaining a professional Army. It quickly became apparent that America was in an untenable position, and needed an ally to assist in winning the war. Specifically, Congress needed an ally with access to men, supplies, and money. The delegates knew France was their best hope to be victorious. Adams was wary of this alliance, and stood firm that it must be purely militaristic in nature, and not entangle America in the future problems of France (a country that spent more time at war than at peace). Seeing France as their best option, Congress appointed Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson commissioners to France with the goal of assisting Silas Deane in negotiating a treaty of alliance. Thomas Jefferson was replaced by Aruthur Lee when Jefferson declined the appointment due to personal reasons.

Adams soon returned home to Braintree, and then back to Baltimore for another session of Congress. It was during this session that Adams was given the most dispiriting news of the war yet. Washington’s troops were bested by Howe’s forces at Brandywine Creek. Who could then march, unabated, the short distance to Philadelphia - routing Congress. Fleeing to York, Congress convened but many members, including Adams, soon departed for home. After enjoying the comforts of home for some weeks, Adams traveled to represent a client in his capacity as a lawyer. During his absence, Abigail received Adams commission to serve with Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee in France. He was being called to serve in place of Silas Deane who was recalled to answer to Congress for his actions as commissioner. Abigail, upon reading the commission, was furious with Congress and their attempt to make her life “one continued scene of anxiety and apprehension.” Despite her effort, he quickly accepted the appointment as he felt it his public duty. Adams would depart for France leaving behind his entire family - except John Quincy who would journey with his father. In secrecy, to avoid spies or attack, father and son departed their home waters aboard the Boston. Captain Samuel Tucker was to be responsible for transporting the Adams’ safely to France. Tucker accomplished this mission, albeit not without some difficulty on the way. Namely, the capture of the British cruiser Martha. But after six weeks and four days aboard ship, Adams was rowed ashore, leaving the Boston behind, and beginning what would become one of the greatest diplomatic careers in the nation's history.

Immediately after Adams arrival, he began to be introduced to French society by Benjamin Franklin. Franklin, being the most popular American in France, had many friends that he advised Adams befriend as well. Adams quickly became enamored with the culture and excitedly wrote Abigail regarding the experiences thus far. However, Adams also met Charles Gravier, Comte de Vergennes, the King’s Foreign Minister, who would become a thorn in the side of Adams’ diplomatic hopes. However, the first problem Adams encountered had nothing to do with diplomacy or the French. Rather, it was the ongoing turbulence between Franklin and Arthur Lee, which led both men to complain of the other to Adams in private. Despite personal differences, the men shared the common goal of an alliance with France. And the first step to this was to introduce the new Minister to King Louis XVI. In which Adams was struck by the importance of King Louis on the future of the Nation.Adams spent much of his time in France feeling as though he was accomplishing little, because the treaty of alliance he was sent to negotiate was already agreed upon prior to his arrival. And the Comte de Vergennes seemed disinterested at best or unwilling at worst to do anything additional to help America. Because of this, he spent the remainder of his first stay in Paris struggling with his fellow commissioners, the Comte de Vergennes, and frustration from Abigail regarding his continued absence. However, Abigail need not worry long, as Adams soon received the news that Franklin was appointed by Congress to be the sole Minister to Paris, with no direct instructions being given to Adams as to future assignments. Deeply hurt by the betrayal, Adams planned to sail home.

Home Again

Adams, despite frustration at Congress for the lack of communication, was deeply relieved to be home with the family he loved and his farm. He would not have much time to enjoy retirement as he was soon selected as a delegate to the Massachusetts state convention in order to form a state constitution. Once Adams completed his work for the state convention, and the new constitution was ratified, Adams was called back to Paris to serve as a Minister Plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties of peace with Great Britain. Adams was frustrated at the way he was treated by Congress, with Henry Laurens writing an apology to Adams stating he was “dismissed without censure or applause.” So as it were, Adams now set sail again to France, John Quincy in tow as he was before, but with the addition of his other son, Charles.

Holland

His time in Paris began with the first of many battles with Vergennes regardings his commision, and the appropriate time to reveal his intentions. This would not be the final battle between the two, as Vergennes eventually attempted to effect the recall of Adams. Even going so far as to employ Franklin in the attempt. Despite the treachery, it became a turning point in Adams’ career, as this is when he made the decision to visit Holland in an attempt to gain financial assistance. Adams trip to Holland was one of “militia diplomacy” in which he bent the rules of his new nation, and the customs long followed by all nations to affect his change. He had not been called to do so by Congress, but instead went on his own free will. Eventually, Congress officially voted for Adams to serve in this role. Which proved vital as Adams was very successful with the Dutch, with the Hague voting to recognize him as the Foreign Minister to the Netherlands on April 19, 1782, and the independence of America was also recognized. Eventually, trips to Holland would lead to a multitude of Dutch loans to America that allowed for the continuance of the war effort, and the ability to pay the balance of prior loans, and began to build American credit abroad. Additionally, on October 8, 1782, Adams negotiated, and signed, a Treaty of Commerce with the Netherlands.

Treaty with Britain

After negotiating the Dutch treaty, Adams was dispatched back to Paris for final peace negotiations. Unfortunately for Adams, he lost his appointment as sole Minister to France following the letters to congress from the Comte de Vergennes and Franklin. However, he was still on the team of diplomats responsible for such negotiations. This team included Adams, Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay, and Henry Laurens (Jefferson being absent for the time, and Laurens being in the Tower of London). Adams was in little rush to attend the negotiations, and ensured that he wrapped up all open business at the Hague prior to leaving - even doing some sightseeing on the way. Upon his arrival in Paris he was dejected to learn of Congress secret instructions to the negotiators to only push for concessions approved by the French government. Even Franklin, the member most beholden to the French, found this to be an untenable position to negotiate from. Eventually agreeing with the other delegates that they would proceed contrary to Congress instruction, and strike the best deal possible with Britain without prior approval from France. The men worked well together, gaining land for the US and reaching peace terms the British found agreeable. It was only on the point of private debts that the commissioners deferred. Jay and Franklin felt that private debt agreements between Americans and British merchants should be forgiven due to the damage the British inflicted upon their former colonies. However, Adams strongly argued, eventually winning, that private debts should be paid notwithstanding injuries from war. This was, however, more of a personal victory than a practical one. Because few individuals would make much attempt to repay the debts, and both state and national congress’ would do little to enforce it.

Adams' final stand came on the rights of American fishermen to fish in the waters off Nova Scotia. Adams was a Massachusetts man, and though not a seafaring man himself, grew up watching the value of cod and other fish to his region's economy - refusing the British to take away this right.

A preliminary treaty of peace was signed with the British on November 30, 1782. With the official treaty being ratified on September 3, 1783 thus ending hostilities. Following the treaty, in August of 1784 - Abigail joined her “dear Mr. Adams” in Paris. After a blissful reunion in Paris, Adams was eventually named the Ambassador to the Court of St. James. The goal of this post being to resolve outstanding issues between America and Britain following the Treaty of Paris. With sadness, Abigail and John left Paris to assume their new post as the first minister from America to King George III.  Adams' diplomatic career would continue for many years following the signing of the Treaty of Paris and his call to London. However, in the years following his arrival to France, Adams proved that he was no longer an inexperienced diplomat, and had now become a statesman….

What do you think of John Adams as a diplomat? Let us know below.

Now read Avery’s article on the role of privateers in the American Revolution here.

Founding Father John Adams - Part 1: Patriot

This three-part series takes on one of America's most important founding fathers, John Adams. John Adams’ contributions to the founding, development, and success of the United States was unrivaled by others of his generation. In this series, I will examine John Adams’ life and contributions to the United States from three perspectives. First, John Adams the patriot. Second, John Adams the diplomat. Third, John Adams the Statesman.

Avery Scott starts part 1 below.

A 1766 portrait of John Adams. By Benjamin Blyth.

Introduction

John Adams' ascension to power was anything but smooth. He, unlike peers George Washington and Benjamin Franklin, was not born into riches. Rather, he was born to a working-class family in October of 1735. Adams was born in Braintree, Massachusetts to John Adams Sr. (Deacon John), a farmer and shoemaker, and Susanna Boylston. From an early age, Adams was a dreamer. He dreamt of being successful and prominent. Despite his dreams, Adams' weaknesses often hindered his ability to obtain his desired success. Frequently he complained of, “dreaming away the time” and wasting too much of his day on the frivolous. Fortunately for Adams, he was born in a time perfect for dreamers. Witnessing the French and Indian War, the effects of slavery, his time serving as a schoolmaster, and the oratorical and legal examples of men such as James Putnam played a major role in shaping the future president. Additionally, Adams' time at Harvard College enriched him, and provided him the liberal education that would become so necessary during his variety of roles in support of the United States. After Adams time at Harvard, he was struck with the decision of a career. Adams settled on the law, completing his legal education, and beginning his career in 1758. For some time he struggled, but eventually became a successful lawyer with a reputation for honesty, integrity, and hardwork. It is around this time in which Adams courts and marries Abigail Smith in 1764. This union would eventually produce six children - one being a future president himself. Unfortunately, the Adams family was not destined to enjoy a lavish lifestyle that would have likely occurred in other circumstances. Rather, at British Parliament's passing of the Sugar Act, Currency Act, Quartering Act, and the Stamp Act, they turned the reluctant to rebel Adams - into a Patriot.

The Patriot

After the passing of the Stamp Act, Adams began writing large political pieces in support of American rights. His first such writing titled, A Dissertation on the Canon and the Feudal Law, was one of his most successful. However, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, allowing for relative calm in the colonies for the next few years. Despite the temporary calm, it was not long before Adams was thrust into the biggest moment of his personal and legal career - the Boston Massacre.

Legal Career

One year before the Boston Massacre, in April of 1769, Adams defended Michael Corbett, a sailor aboard the Pitt Packet, after he killed Lt. Henry Paton of the British Vessel Rose. After he attempted to press Corbett and three other men into British service, Corbett lobbed a harpoon at Paton, killing him. Troops from the Rose took the sailor into custody, who was tried in Boston on murder charges. John Adams expertly defended his client, just as he would during the Boston Massacre in 1770. Thus displaying his expert legal mind, and his affinity for the rights of man.

On March 5th, 1770, a British guard was being taunted by a throng of Colonists, unhappy with his presence. Eventually, a small squadron of troops, and their captain Thomas Preston, appeared as reinforcements. The unfortunate event ended with the British troops firing into the crowd of protestors, killing five. As if the incident were not stressful enough on the young Adams, he was soon asked to provide legal defense for the British troops. Despite his concerns, Adams agreed to provide the services at no charge. Adams spared all of the troops any prison time, and only minor punishments for two soldiers. While it may seem odd that this fervent patriot would defend those he despited,  it displays the principles that the rebels were fighting for in action. They felt that freemen have rights that must be honored, and not least of these is the right to legal counsel and fair trials. Patriotism, in the eyes of John Adams, did not mean that he would disgrace those he disagreed with. Rather, he would work tirelessly to ensure that their rights were also upheld.

Beginnings of Revolution

In December of 1773, the Boston Tea party was orchestrated by the Sons of Liberty in retaliation for the taxes charged on tea, and the crown sanctioned monopoly by the East India Company. In the act, 342 chests of tea were destroyed and dumped into Boston Harbor - infuriating the crown.  Adams was ecstatic to hear about the act and what it meant for America, but knew that at that moment that war would be imminent. As retribution, the crown closed the port of Boston in 1774 as a part of the Intolerable Acts, until the tea was paid for.

In the same year as the intolerable acts, Adams was elected to the First Continental Congress. The first Continental Congress was not nearly as exciting as the Second Continental Congress. However, there were important measures taken that showed the colonists' willingness to submit to British rule under the condition that they were given their due rights. Also, the congress approved such measures as a non-importation and a non-exportation agreements  in an attempt to hurt the British economy. Eventually the First Congress adjourned in October of 1774, and shortly after in 1775 the Second Continental Congress was held.

The Second Congress

The Second Congress saw some of the biggest contributors to the revolutionary cause come together, to make some of the biggest decisions America has ever seen. First and foremost, Adams nominated George Washington to serve as Commander of the Continental forces. A decision that, despite Adams later comments about Washington, was one of the biggest of both their careers. A strong presence was needed to support the Colonies in their attempt to defend against British rule, and Washington fit the mold. Also, Washington was a Virginian, which was important due to Virgina being the largest and wealthiest of all the colonies. Congress felt that the leader of the United Colonies should hail from that state. Additionally, The second Congress also voted to outfit privateers, disarm Tories, and build frigates for a new Navy. Each of these was of major importance, and played a key role in the development of the war.  Finally, a committee of five, made up of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman, were appointed to draft a Declaration of Independence from Britain. After some planning and discussion, Jefferson was tasked by the committee as a whole to write the majority of the document with only input and minor changes from the others. After completion of the document, much debate ensued regarding the act of independence.  During the debate Adams displayed his true patriotic valor, defending the document and pushing for independence from Britain. There were many members of congress that were not yet ready to commit to independence, but Adams' resilience, passion, and hard work convinced many of the delegates that independence was necessary. And on July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress voted to approve the Declaration of Independence.

Once independence was agreed upon, some painful revisions to the Declaration were necessarily undertaken by Congress, at times decimating the document that Jefferson worked so diligently on. One of the biggest sections removed, and one that Adams felt the strongest about, was the chastizement of the King for bringing slavery into the Colonies. This section was removed at the urging of other members of Congress, because slaves and the slave trade were directly associated with the livelihoods and economic status of many members. It is in this debate, that we see the Patriot Adams stand to defend, not only white colonists, but also African Americans. Adams hated the thought of slavery, and never personally owned a slave. He felt strongly that people fighting for freedom should not be holding others in bondage. Unfortunately, Adams lost this debate and on July 4, 1776, the official wording and document was approved for publication. But it was not until August 2, 1776 that the document would be officially signed. Once independence was declared, a host of other issues became necessary to address. Questions of laws, governance, finance, arming of troops, and administrative duties had to be attended to. Just as Adams was a fervent patriot in fighting for independence, he fought the same for these issues.

What do you think of John Adams as a patriot? Let us know below.

Sources

John Adams by David McCullough

The Indispensables: The Diverse Soldier-Mariners Who Shaped the Country, Formed the Navy, and Rowed Washington Across the Delaware by Patrick K. O'Donnell

Washington: A Life by Ron Chernow

A History of the Media and the American Presidency: Part 2 - President John Adams’ Battles with the Media

When looking back at the history of the media’s role in the American Presidency, it is easy to see many comparisons to today.  President Donald Trump’s dilemma with the media is not much different than that two of his predecessors faced, John Adams and Andrew Jackson.  Both men lived in a time that saw vicious attacks on their character by the media.  President Adams was seen as a monarchist despite the role he played in America’s independence. President Jackson was referred to as “King Andrew I” because he utilized the full power of the presidency, something that his predecessors had failed to do. 

In a three-part series, this work will look at how the media played a role in characterizing both Adams (as vice president during his first term and as president) and Jackson (as president) while also looking at how both men battled against their relentless attacks.

In part 2, Ian Craig looks at what happened during John Adams’ presidency from 1797 to 1801, including the Alien and Sedition Acts and his interaction with France during the French Revolution.

If you missed it, part 1 on John Adams’ and the media when he was Vice President is here.

A British political cartoon of Franco-American relations after the XYZ Affair in 1798. 5 Frenchmen plunder female "America", while six figures representing other European countries look on. The British John Bull sits laughing on "Shakespeare's Cliff."

The President by Three Votes

On March 4, 1797 John Adams became president promising to “preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.” As the nation’s second president, Adams would find himself having to protect the young nation from foreign influences while battling the American media.  President Adams did not come to the presidency by a sweeping margin. By 1796, although the founding fathers had not intended for it to happen, political parties arose in the nation. Adams, a Federalist and supporter of a strong federal government, found himself up against Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson was a Democratic-Republican and a supporter of giving more rights to the states (there are more differences between the two parties which will be explained later). Adams won the election by just three votes in the Electoral College. Adams’ received 71 votes to Jefferson’s 68 and just over 53 percent of the national popular vote to Jefferson’s 47 percent. Due to this, Adams was often called the “president by three votes” by the media.[1] This originated from the Philadelphia based newspaper the Aurora which would give Adams much grief during his presidency. Adams did not buy into the scrutiny of the Philadelphia paper - after all, he had won both the popular vote and the electoral vote. 

However, Adams had to work with a vice president who disagreed with him on almost every matter. Because Jefferson had placed second, he became vice president. This meant that both the president and vice president were from two different political parties. This was not intended when the Constitution was written. By 1800, the selection of the president and vice president would ensure that both came from the same political party; however, the rise of political parties meant that Adams had to endure the onslaught of those in the press who supported the Democratic-Republicans.

Foreign Influences

A key issue that Adams had in assuming office was the French Revolution. France had been in a revolution since 1789 and had sought support from President Washington. Washington did not want the young United States to enter a war so early after its own independence. This angered the French and those in America who supported them. Their argument was that France had come to the aid of America during its own revolution and that it was time to return the favor. Then Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson supported the French and their cause, as did many in America. However, Washington would not commit to supporting the French Revolution and remained neutral. 

John Adams wished to continue the same policy that his predecessor had committed to. Adams felt that the United States could not engage in a full-scale war, as it was not prepared. Nor did he believe it was the right decision for the young nation. This was when Adams would face the onslaught of negative coverage by the Democratic-Republican allied press. The root of the rift between the Adams’ Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republicans was a matter of a difference in opinion. In 1794, Washington had sent Chief Justice John Jay to make a final peace with Britain and to settle some remaining “bad blood” between the two nations. This became known as Jay’s Treaty. This upset the Democratic-Republicans led by Thomas Jefferson who denounced British involvement in the French Revolution. They viewed the treaty as America taking sides in the war. This also angered the French, who began to seize American ships.

Before going forward, it is important to state the difference between the political ideologies of the Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson. The Federalists, who supported Adams, wanted an economy based on that of Britain with the wealthier controlling such areas as manufacturing. They also believed in a strong central or federal government (hence the name “federalists”). The Democratic-Republicans supported more power for the states and less power for central government. They also supported an economy based on the working and agricultural classes, similar to France. It is for these reasons that both sides supported either Britain or France.

Relations worsen

Early in the Adams presidency, what became known as the XYZ affair occurred. In order to stop the French from seizing American ships, Adams sent an envoy to France in order to settle the matter. What became of the matter upset many Americans, including the President. The French under Foreign Minister Talleyrand sent three officials to discuss terms with the Americans. However, they would not talk to them unless a sum of money was given to each man plus a loan to France. The American diplomats refused to pay and once the news got to Adams he was outraged. He refused to call the three French diplomats by their names and referred to them as “XYZ.” This caused tensions to rise between the United States and France. The Democratic-Republican press called the president “unhinged by the delirium of vanity”[2] over his supposed “insult of the French” by refusing to pay their demands.[3]

Adams wanted nothing more than peace with France and worked to establish that outcome. However, he also looked to build up the American military, with heavy emphasis on the navy.[4] Adams believed that the navy was important to securing American sovereignty along its shores and overseas. He pushed for the building of several frigates; one such ship was the U.S.S. Constitution. It is for this reason that he is often referred to as the “father of the U.S. navy.”

                  This caused tensions with the Democratic-Republicans and Jefferson, who did not like the idea of America having a standing army that was under the control of the federal government. The Federalists on the other hand supported it for many reasons. The key issue that came to dominate Adams’ presidency was how foreigners were influencing Americans to support the French Revolution. This was the Federalists greatest fear, an attempt to force the American government to side with the French.  This would cause instability within the government. Federalists believed that those from Ireland, England, and Scotland, many of whom worked in the printing press, would “spread fears or lies to the public in order to upset the stability of the union and government.”[5]

                  It is for this reason that the Federalist began to push Adams to support the Alien and Sedition Acts. These two Acts would become a controversy in America. The Alien Act was designed to “deport non-citizens who were a threat to the nation’s security.”[6] The Federalists and many other Americans believed that these foreigners would influence insurrection and rebellion in the nation. This would then lead to the instability of the United States. The Act was designed to protect national security by all means. The Sedition Act drew more scrutiny, as it appeared to violate the First Amendment. It stated that “people who spoke out against the government or harmed its position could be imprisoned.”[7] This in-turn, focused on those of the press who disagreed with the president and other government officials. 

Media debates

The Democratic-Republican press saw both acts as limiting the “rights of foreigners who were more likely to vote for them.”[8]They believed that the Federalists were attempting to silence the opposition by passing both laws. The Federalist press disagreed and saw them as “protecting the union from internal instability and treats.”[9] That it “gave juries the right to decide what printed material was hurtful or not.”[10] Adams himself never pursued the Alien and Sedition Acts.[11] He did not sign them into law without careful consideration, he did so having felt support for them by the American people.  This however, would come back to hurt him. Members of the press like Benjamin Franklin Bach wrote in his newspaper that the President had used an “unconstitutional exercise of power”[12] and was charged for insulting the president.  At the same time Thomas Cooper of the Pennsylvania Gazette and David Frothingham of the New York Argus were both convicted of speaking against the government and imprisoned.[13]

Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans would campaign in 1800 against these acts of what they saw as abuse by the federal government. During the election of 1800, the Federalist Party had fractured over disagreements between Adams and its leader Alexander Hamilton. Adams’ dismissal of the standing army, which he believed was no longer needed, angered Hamilton and others. Adams had also refused to take a strong federal stance during Fries Rebellion against Hamilton’s wishes.[14] The result was that Adams lost the election of 1800 to Thomas Jefferson. Adams refused to attend Jefferson’s inauguration, being the first of four presidents to do so. Adams’ legacy is often seen as negative because of the Alien and Sedition Acts and his refusal to support France. However, he followed the stance of George Washington by keeping the United States neutral. The media hated him for this and called him every name imaginable. However, during the early days of the republic, Adams worked to preserve the nation and to make sure that it would be given a chance to survive and prosper as the founding fathers had wished. It is hard to say what would have happened if he had done the opposite and supported the French. The United States would have found itself in another war not so long after another. It was still new and fragile, Adams knew this and worked to pursue peace by a show of force in order to give the United States a fighting chance. 

What do you think of John Adams’ battles with the media? Let us know below.

Now, you can read Ian’s previous article on possibly the most important reason for the American Revolution here.

[1] David McCullough, John Adams (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001), 485. 

[2] Ibid, 498.

[3] Ibid, 498.

[4] Ibid, 485.

[5] Jackie Mansky, “The Age-Old Problem of ‘Fake News’: It’s been part of the conversation as far back as the birth of the free press,” Smithsonian Magazine, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/age-old-problem-fake-news-180968945/ [assessed January 12, 2021]. 

[6] “The Presidency of John Adams: The Alien and Sedition Acts,” Khan Academy, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/road-to-revolution/creating-a-nation/a/presidency-of-john-adams [assessed January 12, 2021]. 

[7] Ibid, “The Alien and Sedition Acts.”

[8] Mansky, “The Age-Old Problem of ‘Fake News.”

[9] Ibid. 

[10] Ibid. 

[11] C. James Taylor, “John Adams: Impact and Legacy,” The Miller Center, http://millercenter.org/president/adams/impact-and-legacy [assessed January 12, 2021]. 

[12] Eric P. Robinson, “Another President Who Took On ‘Fake News,’” South Carolina Press, https://scpress.org/another-president-who-took-on-fake-news/ [assessed January 12, 2021].

[13] Ibid. 

[14] C. James Taylor, “John Adams: Impact and Legacy.”

Abigail Adams – An American Heroine

Abigail Smith, later Abigail Adams (1744-1818), was the wife of John Adams, the second President of the United States. Abigail, or Abby, had a very close partnership with John and so played an instrumental role in the Revolutionary War years and in the early years of an independent United States. Douglas Reid explains.

Abigail Adams in the 1760s. Painting by Benjamin Blyth.

Abigail Smith was a petite woman. She was born in the seaside village of Weymouth, Massachusetts in 1744 to Puritan parents, her father being one of two Bible scholars serving the spiritual needs of 2,100 souls. She would never receive a day of formal education but as an introverted young lady she would meet a local young lawyer named John Adams and her fate was assured. The 54- year marriage of John and Abigail Adams was a partnership of heart and mind.

Abigail proved to be a natural scholar who inhaled her father’s library in large swallows, especially the prose and poetry of John Donne and the essays of Montaigne. It helped a great deal that her father encouraged her to read and then think about what she read. Subsequently her husband would also encourage her in these self-styled seminars and three occurrences together produced a scholar of no mean standing. Add to this mix her belated blossoming and this produced a young woman of fire and desire. And Abby made a point of cultivating the friendship of two special soul mates.

Abby began a three-year correspondence with the historian Catherine Macaulay. And she also developed a more enduring friendship with Mercy Otis Warren, a playwright of even greater renown. But her steadiest sounding- board was always John. John called Abby a heroine before I did. Himself a successful lawyer and a graduate of Harvard, John would soon provide his wife a practical course in politics and that course was underway by 1768.

Events heat up

In that year John was elected to the Massachusetts legislature, the first of several state and ambassadorships he would be assigned to serve. Thus began the earliest correspondence between John and Abigail. Now, in the 1770s the enmity between Mother Britain and the renegade States grew worse, and famously flared in 1775 in Concord and Lexington. The Revolutionary War was underway.

The years 1770 – 1776 might better be judged a shadow war, which grew hotter with Concord and Lexington. Redcoats and Minute Men simmered and smouldered. Perhaps these six years could be considered as a “phoney war”. One thing was certain. John’s time away from home was growing and a consequence was that Abigail was taking over the operation of the family farm as well as the early education of their children and minding the family finances. And then there was Portia.

Portia was known in ancient Rome as the beleaguered wife of Brutus the noble conspirator. Abigail adopted Portia as a pen name when exchanging letters with her husband and Mary Otis Warren and no one else. Portia was not the only reference to a mythic being in the Adams household. So was Phoebe.

Phoebe (A Moon Goddess) was the name of Abigail’s personal “servant” during her childhood. When Abby married John Adams, Phoebe went along with her. This, of course, raises the issue of slavery. Even a cursory examination of their lives reveals a couple opposed to slavery in a nation dedicated to liberty, but this continued to bother her. And on this issue, as nearly all others, the Adams’ agreed.

Now, as the first Continental Congress approached in 1774 Abby had become the best-read woman of her time. As the representatives of the states met, John found himself increasingly seeking Abby’s input. He told her “If I could write as well as you, my sorrows would be as eloquent as yours, but upon my word I can not.” He once used a quotation included in one of her letters in a speech before Congress. Then in 1778 Congress named John Adams as Commissioner to France and later to the Netherlands. Separated for years, the Adams were reunited in France and Abby watched the antics of the “beau monde” up close and personal.

A great partnership

Following a brief time at home John would travel to the Netherlands in an attempt to induce the Dutch to lend the struggling young nation a loan. He was unsuccessful on this occasion. However a second effort in this regard would be granted at a later date. Perhaps it is significant that Abby was with him on the second hearing but not on the first.

He always shared the details of his work with his wife and sought her advice. Politics always fascinated her. John basked in the recognition that went with public service. Abigail cherished a vicarious importance as the wife of a prominent public figure. Soon John was to be appointed the first ever Minister Plenipotentiary to England. This time the Minister’s wife accompanied him throughout the appointment. Mrs. Adams proved to be the epitome of the universal observation that travel enlightens and deepens. One colleague of John’s said of her “Mrs. Adams is the most accomplished lady I have seen since I left England.

It has to be said that Abby never probed deeply into the minds and souls of the people she met in Europe but she was a keen observer of anything external. Her natural purview was monuments, buildings, flowers, trees and behavior. Probably her favorite subject was women’s education. In her view a better education, far from destroying a woman’s femininity, made them better wives and mothers. As John rose to and through the office of vice-president under Washington and then himself president, Abigail was always there, always one of the partnership. When John was scheduled to review military troops in New Jersey and could not make it, Abby acted as his proxy. 

Abigail Adams first loyalty was always to John and she would never allow him to diminish his life’s work. For Abby, John remained forever the President and she never referred to him by any other name.

Now you can read Douglas’ article on Thomas Paine, the man whose book may have led to the American Revolution, here.

A History of the Media and the American Presidency: Part 1 - Vice President John Adams and His Battle with the American Media (1789-1793)

When looking back at the history of the media’s role in the American Presidency, it is easy to see many comparisons to today.  President Donald Trump’s dilemma with the media is not much different than that two of his predecessors faced, John Adams and Andrew Jackson.  Both men lived in a time that saw vicious attacks on their character by the media. President Adams was seen as a monarchist despite the role he played in America’s independence. President Jackson was referred to as “King Andrew I” because he utilized the full power of the presidency, something that his predecessors had failed to do. 

In a three-part series, this work will look at how the media played a role in characterizing both Adams (as vice president during his first term and as president) and Jackson (as president) while also looking at how both men battled against their relentless attacks.

Here, Ian Craig starts the series by looking at Adams’ time as Vice President (1789-1797).

You can read Ian’s previous article on possibly the most important reason for the American Revolution here.

Portrait of John Adams while he was Vice-President in the 1790s.

America’s First Vice President and the Media

Adams’ first battle with the media as vice president came while he led a debate in the Senate.  According to the Constitution, the vice president will serve as the president of the senate.  However, the role of vice president was largely intended to be ceremonial and had little power.  This meant that in the Senate, Adams had no real authority but to break tie votes. This was something that Adams had to learn the hard way.  One of the first debates in the Senate was over what the president should be addressed as. Adams opted to lead the way in this debate much to the displeasure of the senators.  Adams believed that “if the central government was to have greater authority and importance than the state governments, then the titles of federal office ought to reflect that.”[1] This meant that the president of the United States needed a title that was befitting of such an office.  Adams gave such suggestions as “His Majesty the President.” Some senators supported Adams’ desire for titles in debating the title “His Highness the President of the United States.”  However, this did not sit well with many people nor the media at the time.

The media was quick to point out that the Constitution forbade titles of nobility in the United States. It was at this point that many came to suggest that Adams’ time abroad had tainted him to the monarchies of Europe. To John Adams, this was not the case and he simply believed that respect should be given to the central government and to those who held office within it.  This was his idea of helping to secure the sovereignty of the government both at home and abroad.  This explanation did not stop the media from its continued attacks on Adams’ character and his intentions.  In 1791 Thomas Paine had published a work called The Rights of Man.  Thomas Jefferson, who was then Secretary of State, had sent it to a publisher in Philadelphia calling it the answer to the “political heresies that have sprung among us.”[2] The publisher printed the work with Jefferson’s own words on the front page causing the public to link political heresies to Adams.  This did more to hurt the Vice President and his credibility seeing that his friend and soon to be chief rival viewed him in such a way.  Of course, Jefferson had not intended for the publisher to spin his words in that way nor make the connection that Adams wanted to take away the rights of man. 

Adams’ Defense

The Media jumped on this and the New Haven Gazette called Adams an “unprincipled libeler” who loved monarchy and had an antipathy to freedom.[3] In response to the newspaper’s claim, Adams said “if you suppose that I have ever had a design or desire of attempting to introduce a government of kings, lords, and commons, or in other words a hereditary executive, or hereditary senate, either into the government of the Unit States…you are wholly mistaken.”[4] To put it simply, the Vice President’s insistence on titles had made him increasingly unpopular and his continued desire to share his opinions in the Senate made him even more so.  The media and rivals began to paint a picture of Adams as a monarchist instead of the democracy seeking founding father he was.   In addition to this attack, the Republican media in the Aurora called him a “gross and shameless monarchist.” They went further and called him “unfit to lead the country” below the headline “An Alarm'.[5] The Boston Chronicle suggested that if Adams had his way “the principle of hereditary succession would be imposed on America to make way for John Quincy.[6]

Adams for the most part remained silent on the attacks, but they did hurt him dearly. However, Adams did not respond to such accusations outright because he believed it was beneath his office to do so.   Writing in the Colombian Centinel under the name “Publicola”, John Quincy came to the defense of his father.  He took aim at Jefferson and his sponsored work The Rights of Men.  John Quincy stated that essentially Jefferson had suggested that all who had a different political opinion from his own supported heresy.  John Quincy could not comprehend how such a respectable man as Jefferson could make such a claim.[7]   Jefferson did apologize to Adams, but their friendship would never be the same. Eventually, Adams came to understand his role as Vice President and was over time, largely forgotten and spared from the media’s attacks until his presidency.

What do you think of John Adams’ battles with the media? Let us know below.

[1]David McCullough, John Adams (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001), 405. 

[2]Ibid, 429. 

[3]Ibid, 431. 

[4]Ibid, 431. 

[5]Ibid, 462. 

[6]Ibid, 462. 

[7]Ibid, 430

Truth to Power: First Ladies that Shaped Presidencies and Policies. Part 1: Abigail Adams

While there has yet to be a female president, first ladies have been important in shaping many presidencies and their policies. In the start of a new series, Kate Murphy Schaefer goes back to the late 18th century and considers the importance of Abigail Adams to America and Founding Father John Adams.

A painting of Abigail Adams by Gilbert Stuart.

With the recent passing of former first lady Barbara Bush, Americans are once again allowed to indulge in a favorite pastime: memorializing and waxing rhapsodic about their most public citizens. This is second only to the most popular pastime: ridiculing those same citizens for what they did and did not do. Presidents are elected; to some degree they understand and accept the level of scrutiny they will be under for the rest of their lives. First ladies are, as Barbara Bush’s daughter-in-law Laura said, “elected by one man,” but have to live under the same microscope as their husbands.[1]

A first lady must be “a showman and a salesman, a clotheshorse and a publicity sounding board, with a good heart, and a real interest in the folks,” explained Lady Bird Johnson.[2] If any of those traits seem contradictory, that is the point. There are no set guidelines outlining a first lady’s role and duties, but Americans expect them to conform to expectations that change quickly and often. Within this White-House-shaped cage, they are judged for what they wore, said, and did, and also for what they did not wear, say, or do.

Still, first ladies are privileged because their words and actions are considered important enough to include in the historical record. For most of American history, women were expected to be silent observers as men shaped the world in which they lived. Their stories were beneath notice, and therefore ignored and forgotten. America’s earliest first ladies were considered important because they were connected to important men. Abigail Smith Adams, wife of President John Adams, provides an excellent example.

The Political “Pest”

Born in 1744, Abigail Smith was raised in a family that was politically aware and active. Her maternal grandfather, John Quincy, held several positions in the Massachusetts government and encouraged his daughter and granddaughters to keep abreast of what was going on in the world outside the home. She was not formally educated, but her correspondence demonstrates she was extremely well-read and had an agile, searching mind. “In an age when women were content to take a backseat to their husbands and keep their mouths shut,” wrote historian Cormac O’Brien, “Abigail gave free rein to her extraordinary intellect.”[3]

Abigail was most outspoken in her correspondence with husband John. When Adams left for Philadelphia for the Continental Congress in 1776, he left a very curious wife at home. Abigail “pestered the politicians for news” and asked her husband for updates in lengthy letters. “(T)ell me if you may where your Fleet are gone? What sort of Defence Virginia can make against our common Enemy? Whether it is situated as to make an able Defence?” she asked in a letter dated March 31, 1776.[4] She was a stalwart defender of the Revolution and her husband, and was emboldened by her husband’s respect for her views. One of her most famous letters encouraged her husband to “remember the ladies” in the drafting of the Declaration of Independence.

“Remember the Ladies”

                  “(I)n the new Code of Laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make I desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power in the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men could be tyrants if they could.”[5]

In three sentences, Adams set forth the radical idea that protection under the law also applied to women. Use of the word tyrant was deliberate and effective, recalling John Locke’s warning that “wherever law ends, tyranny begins.”[6] She intimated American men were no better than the British if they did not include the needs and opinions of women in the nation they created. She went so far as to predict women would “foment a Rebelion (sic)” if the new government did not grant them a voice, prompting John’s reply, “(a)s to your extraordinary Code of Laws, I cannot but laugh.”[7]

The female rebellion did not come to pass, but the Adams’ correspondence laid bare a distressing truth about the American experiment. Revolution created a new nation, but not a new society. Race, class, and gender narrowed the founders’ definition of who was entitled to the rights of life, liberty, and property. They overthrew the British colonial “tyrants” and took up the mantle themselves. “I have sometimes been ready to think that the Passion for Liberty cannot be Eaqually (sic) Strong in the Breasts of those who have been accustomed to deprive their fellow Creatures of theirs,” wrote Abigail.[8] These liberal views were exceptionally progressive during her time. It can be argued they were progressive two hundred years later as women campaigned for equal protection under the law with the Equal Rights Amendment.

Her opinions on women’s rights kept private, it was Abigail’s vocal support of her husband, that “tireless promoter of liberty and…abrasive pain in the ass,” that most influenced popular opinion of the first lady.[9] As Adams and Thomas Jefferson squared off in the 1790s, Abigail was often caught in the crossfire. Her perceived influence on the President was exaggerated and therefore useful to political adversaries. They had no problem remembering the lady, calling her “Mrs. President” behind her back and arguing behind closed doors that she had “queenly aspirations.”[10]

“My pen runs riot”

By 1797, Abigail well understood her position’s lack of privacy. “My pen runs riot. I forget that it must grow cautious and prudent. I fear I shall make a dull business when such restrictions are laid upon it.”[11] Her fear was unfounded as she most certainly did not find being first lady a “dull business.” She expressed relief to finally leave the public eye when her husband left office. She never fully left the limelight, however. The first lady became “first mother” upon the election of her son President John Quincy Adams, namesake of the grandfather who had inspired her so many years before.

Abigail Adams spoke at a time women were supposed to be silent, and was politically aware when women were supposed to look no further than home and hearth. Her mind and opinions were extraordinary, so we are lucky her words were preserved. We should not forget that she was included in the historical record because of her connection to a powerful man. Though Abigail was far from ornamental in life, historians rendered her so after death. As historians continue studying the founding of our nation, they must work to “remember the ladies,” understanding the roles women played could be both hidden and important. For every woman recorded in the history books, the names and contributions of thousands more were lost. Would including women’s stories fundamentally alter our historical understanding of the American Revolution and the Early Republic? Probably not. But remembering the ladies would add new life to a history too long seen as cut and dried.

What do you think of the article? Let us know below.

[1] Laura Bush quoted in Kate Anderson Bower, First Women: The Grace and Power of America’s Modern First Ladies (New York: Harper Collins, 2017), 7.

[2] Lady Bird Johnson quoted in Ibid, 4.

[3] Cormac O’Brien, Secret Lives of the First Ladies (Philadelphia: Quirk Books, 2005), 18.

[4] “Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March - 5 April 1776,” Adams Family Papers: An Electronic Archive, Massachusetts Historical Society, https://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/doc?id=L17760331aa.

[5] Ibid.

[6] John Locke, “Chapter XVIII: Of Tyranny,” Two Treatises of Government, Book II, section 202.

[7] Ibid.

[8] Ibid.

[9] O’Brien, 21.

[10] Ibid.

[11] “Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, 29 January 1797,” Adams Family Papers: An Electronic Archive, Massachusetts Historical Society, https://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/doc?id=L17970129aa.

Sources Cited

Bower, Kate Anderson. First Women: The Grace and Power of America’s Modern First Ladies. New York: Harper Collins, 2017.

“Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 March - 5 April 1776,” Adams Family Papers: An Electronic Archive, Massachusetts Historical Society, https://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/doc?id=L17760331aa.

“Letter from Abigail Adams to John Adams, 29 January 1797,” Adams Family Papers: An Electronic Archive, Massachusetts Historical Society, https://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/archive/doc?id=L17970129aa.

Locke, John. Two Treatises of Government. (1689).

O’Brien, Cormac. Secret Lives of the First Ladies. Philadelphia: Quirk Books, 2005.

Re-establishing Anglo-American Relations: John Quincy Adams in London

In 1788, John Adams left London, never to return to Europe. His son, John Quincy Adams, would assume his father’s post at the Court of Saint James 27 years later. While both men represented the United States in Great Britain after wars, JQA had a more successful time in establishing stronger ties between the two nations than his father had. This article by Steve Strathmann follows the first in the series here and details the ups-and-downs of John Quincy Adams’ time in London.

The Experienced Diplomat

John Quincy Adams first came to Europe with his father during the Revolutionary War. In addition to working for his father, he spent three years in Russia serving as secretary for an American mission at the tender age of fourteen. After graduating from Harvard, he was appointed Minister to the Netherlands by George Washington. During his time in The Hague, he travelled frequently to London on business, where he met his future wife Louisa Johnson, the American daughter of a Maryland father and English mother. In fact, the church where they were married, the Church of All Hallows Barking, still stands today near the Tower of London and has a plaque outside marking the occasion.

JQA would later serve terms as American minister to Prussia and Russia. While at St. Petersburg, he was asked to join the American group negotiating to end the War of 1812. After the Treaty of Ghent was signed, he hoped to return home, but was asked to serve as President Madison’s Minister to the Court of St. James. The offer was too tempting for Adams to refuse and he crossed the English Channel in May 1815.

John Quincy Adams by Gilbert Stuart, 1818 (The White House Historical Association).

Official Relations with Britain

John Quincy Adams presented his credentials to the Prince Regent on June 8, 1815. The prince did not seem prepared for the meeting, at one point even asking if JQA “was related to Mr. Adams, who had formerly been the Minister from the United States here.” The new minister established an office on Charles Street and rented a house outside of London in the village of Ealing. While in Britain, John Quincy and Louisa would have their whole family (sons George, John and Charles) together for the first time in six years.

Adams maintained good relationships with both Prime Minister Lord Liverpool and Foreign Secretary Lord Castlereagh. His primary mission was to help negotiate a treaty of commerce with the British. The result of these negotiations would only be a commercial convention, but the Americans did make some gains. These included a prohibition on discriminatory duties, the opening of British East Indies ports to American shipping and ‘most favored nation’ status for the United States.

There were still outstanding issues left over between the two nations after the War of 1812. These included the impressment of sailors, the return of slaves that fled to the West Indies with British help during the war, and the opening of Canadian waters to American fishermen. Castlereagh said in response that these were issues that could be dealt with at a later date when the Anglo-American relationship was stronger. Adams did not press the foreign secretary, especially over the escaped slaves. A life-long abolitionist, Adams only brought up the topic because his diplomatic instructions called for it.

One area where significant gains were made was on the Canadian border of the United States. On January 16 and March 21 of 1816, Adams proposed to Castlereagh that there should be a reduction of arms on the Great Lakes. The foreign secretary agreed and the negotiations that followed led to the Rush-Bagot Agreement of 1817. This pact reduced the two lake fleets to four ships apiece that were to primarily deal with customs issues. This agreement was “the first reciprocal naval disarmament in the history of international relations”, according to historian Samuel Flagg Bemis. Others have added that it is also the most successful and longest-lasting deal of its kind.

Outside the Office

In addition to his good relations with Liverpool and Castlereagh, Adams struck up friendships with other notable Brits. One was the philosopher Jeremy Bentham. Though the two men had differing views on certain topics, they became friends due to their appreciation of each other’s intellect. John Quincy and Louisa also were invited to a wedding held at the Duke of Wellington’s home.

Adams enjoyed going to the theater and opera in London, especially to see the works of William Shakespeare. He read Shakespeare often, and his diaries contain reviews of London performances of Richard the Third and A Midsummer Night’s Dream.

John Quincy and Louisa were thrilled to have their family together and being able to watch their sons’ growth. George and John were enrolled in an Ealing boarding school, while Charles attended school during the day. While he loved his boys, JQA worried that they did not focus enough on their studies. According to biographer Fred Kaplan, he hoped that someday they “would be his intellectual companions” much like he was to his father.

Unfortunately, Adams did have to deal with some health issues during his London tenure. He injured his writing hand and also had several eye infections. These afflictions were especially hard on a man who was a vociferous reader and writer. Louisa helped during this period by taking dictation and reading aloud to her husband. Adams eventually healed and was able to resume all of his diplomatic duties.

In April 1817, Adams received a message from President James Monroe, asking him to return to Washington and become Secretary of State. Though John Quincy hesitated, the rest of his family were excited about the prospect of returning to the United States, including his elderly parents. He eventually decided that he would accept the cabinet post, and on June 10, 1817, the family left London for the long journey home.

In 1861, Charles Francis Adams would return to take the post that his father and grandfather held before him. His primary duty: keep the British out of the American Civil War. But that’s for next time…

We shall have the next article in this series next month.

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Sources

Kaplan, Fred. John Quincy Adams: American Visionary. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2014.

Remini, Robert V. John Quincy Adams. New York: Times Books, 2002.

Unger, Harlow Giles. John Quincy Adams. Boston: De Capo Press, 2012.

Thomas Jefferson – The President who re-wrote the Gospels

Thomas Jefferson is today known as one of America’s greater presidents. So much so that both Democrats and Republicans claim him as their own. But he also undertook another remarkable feat – he re-wrote the Gospels to make them less miraculous. William Bodkin explains.

Few people in American history have been picked over as much as Thomas Jefferson. Of the Founding Fathers, he is considered second only to George Washington, and of the presidents, only Abraham Lincoln may have had more written about him. This is all with good reason. Jefferson, alongside John Adams, formed the original American frenemies; together they forged the creative relationship that gave birth to the United States. Their influence, and conflicts, remain to this day. The United States runs for political office in the language of Jefferson, that of personal freedom and self-determination, but governs in the language of Adams, that of a technocratic elite managing a strong central government.

A portrait of Thomas Jefferson. Circa 1791.

In my last post, I considered John Adams’ Declaration of Independence, the May 15, 1776 resolution he believed to be the real Declaration, consigning Jefferson’s to a mere ceremonial afterthought.[1] Adams, eyes firmly locked on posterity, seemed to compete for immortality with Jefferson. However, despite recent efforts to rehabilitate the image of the second president, Adams, who knew he had made himself obnoxious to his colleagues[2], has largely lost this battle.

Jefferson, by contrast, is beloved as the genius Founding Father whom everyone claims as their own.  The Democrats revere him for founding their party, one of the oldest in the world. The Republicans, and the tea party movement in particular, love to quote his language of personal freedom and revolution, like invoking his statement that “the tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants.”[3] All agree that his “ceremonial afterthought” should be celebrated for all time.

And yet, though he has won history’s affections, there’s an excellent chance Jefferson would be irritated by being worshiped or followed today.  After all, Jefferson had “sworn eternal hostility” against “any form of tyranny over the mind of man,”[4] believing that one generation of humanity could not bind another with its ideas, or even its laws. Jefferson said that it was “self-evident” that “the earth belongs to the living.”[5] Indeed, were he alive today, he would probably encourage us to discard things such as the “original intent” of the Founding Fathers much in the same way he discarded the work of the Evangelists who wrote the Christian Gospels.

REWRITING THE GOSPELS

Jefferson was not known for his devotion to religion. Abigail Adams wrote, after Jefferson had defeated her husband John Adams for the presidency, that the young nation had “chosen as our chief Magistrate a man who makes no pretensions to the belief of an all wise and supreme Governor of the World.” Mrs. Adams did not think Jefferson was an atheist. Rather, Jefferson believed religion to only be as “useful as it may be made a political Engine” and that its rituals were a mere charade. Mrs. Adams concluded that Jefferson was “not a believer in the Christian system.”[6]

Jefferson, who always professed a high regard for the teachings of Jesus, found the Gospels to be “defective as a whole,” with Jesus’ teachings “mutilated, misstated, and often unintelligible.”[7] Jefferson seemed most offended by the accounts of miracles. The Gospels could be improved, he concluded, by removing the magical thinking - that is, anything that could not be explained by human reason.

Following his presidency, Jefferson reconciled with John Adams once Adams had recovered from the bitter sting of presidential defeat. Jefferson confided in his old friend about the project he had undertaken to rewrite the Gospels. Jefferson wrote to Adams that “by cutting verse by verse out of the printed book,” he was able to separate out “the matter which is evidently his (Jesus’),” which Jefferson found to be “as distinguishable as diamonds in a dunghill.”[8] Adams responded favorably to Jefferson’s project, commenting “if I had eyes and nerves I would go through both Testaments and mark all that I understand.”[9]

Jefferson, though, was not finished. He believed the effort he described to Adams was “too hastily done”.  It had been “the work of one or two evenings only, while I lived in Washington.”[10] Think, for a moment, how astounding that is. Jefferson’s first effort at reworking the Gospels came while he “lived in Washington,” meaning while he was president. So for fun, after steering the American ship of state, he rewrote the Gospels.

A NEW WAY OF THINKING

While working on his second Gospel revision, Jefferson described his complete disdain for the Evangelists. He found their work to be underpinned by “a groundwork of vulgar ignorance, of things impossible, of superstitions, fanaticisms and fabrications.” Yet he still believed that “intermixed with these” were “sublime ideas of the Supreme Being”, “aphorisms and precepts of the purest morality and benevolence,” that had been “sanctioned by a life of humility, innocence and simplicity of manners, neglect of riches, absence of worldly ambition and honors.” All had been expressed, by Jesus, “with an eloquence and persuasiveness which have not been surpassed.” Jefferson could not accept that Jesus’ purest teachings were the “inventions of the groveling authors who relate them.” Those teachings were “far beyond the powers of their feeble minds.” Yes, the Evangelists had shown that there was a character named Jesus, but his “splendid conceptions” could not be considered “interpolations from their hands.” To Jefferson, the task was clear once more. He would “undertake to winnow this grain from its chaff.”  It would not “require a moment's consideration”, as the difference “is obvious to the eye and to the understanding.”[11]

At the end of this process, Jefferson, in his seventy-sixth year, had completed his Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth, extracted from the Gospels in Greek, Latin, French & English, an account of the life of Jesus, bereft of any mention of the miraculous. No wedding feast at Cana, no resurrection of Lazarus, and ending with the disciples laying Jesus in the tomb, rolling a great stone to the door, and then departing.

Jefferson’s rewriting of the Gospels is a perfect distillation of his belief that each generation could take and shape the meaning of the Gospels, or really, anything, for their own purposes. Jefferson took these beliefs to his gravestone. Prior to his death, he chose to list there, of all his accomplishments, his three great contributions to the freedom of thought: “Author of the Declaration of American Independence and the Virginia Statutes on Religious Freedom; Father of the University of Virginia.” Jefferson hoped, perhaps, to inspire successive generations not to follow his words, but rather, to live by his example, and cast off the intellectual bonds of the past in order to create a new way of thinking.

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[1] See, Ellis, Joseph, Revolutionary Summer: The Birth of American Independence, Chapter 1 , “Prudence Dictates.” (Knopf 2013).

[2] Id.

[3] Letter of Thomas Jefferson to William Stephens Smith, Novmeber 13, 1787.

[4] Letter of Thomas Jefferson to Dr. Benjamin Rush, September 23, 1800.

[5] Letter of Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, September 6, 1789

[6] Letter of Abigail Adams to Mary Cranch (her sister) dated February 7, 1801.

[7] Jefferson, Thomas. “Syllabus of an estimate of the merit of the Doctrines of Jesus, compared with those of others.” College of William and Mary, Digital Archive (https://digitalarchive.wm.edu/handle/10288/15130).

[8]Letter of Thomas Jefferson to John Adams, October 13, 1813.

[9] Letter from John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, November 14, 1813.

[10] Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Rev. F.A. van der Kemp, May 25, 1816.

[11] Letter of Thomas Jefferson to William Short, August 4, 1820.

A Founding Father in London. John Adams’ troubles

John Adams was one of the Founding Fathers of the USA. After US independence was achieved, he served in a number of positions, including as the US Minister to Britain, a crucial role at the time. Here, Steve Strathmann looks at how Adams fared while in London.

After the American Revolution and throughout the nineteenth century, Anglo-American relations saw many highs and lows. While the United Kingdom and the United States only went to war once during this period (War of 1812), tensions were always close to the surface. This situation made the position of United States Minister to the Court of St. James’ one of the most important in the US State Department. Among the many men who held this post (including five future presidents), three members of the Adams family served in London at points during or after times of war. John, his son John Quincy and his grandson Charles Francis all faced challenges during their terms, but each contributed to the slow but steady strengthening of bonds between the British and their former American colonies. This first of three articles will deal with the first American minister to London, John Adams.

A portrait of John Adams, circa 1792. By John Trumbull.

Meeting George III

At the time of his appointment to London in 1785, John Adams had been in Europe for about three years. During that period, he had served as ambassador to the Netherlands (a post he would continue to hold while in England) and served on the committee that negotiated the Treaty of Paris, which ended the war with Britain.

He presented his credentials to King George III on June 1, 1785. In his speech to the king, Adams stated that he hoped that he could help restore the “good old nature and good old humor between people who... have the same language, a similar religion, and kindred blood.”

John Adams later reported that George III seemed very affected by the meeting. In his response, the king stated that he was the last person to agree to the breakup between Great Britain and the American colonies. On the other hand, since it was now fact he “would be the first to meet the friendship of the United States as an independent power.”

Public Reception of Minister Adams

The choice of Adams as the chief American representative in Britain was widely scorned by the London press. This was no surprise, given Adams’ roles in promoting American independence and negotiating the treaty which achieved that end. According to historian Joseph J. Ellis, the press reaction to Adams was “much like the Vatican would have greeted the appointment of Martin Luther”. Adams took the way that some people acted towards him during his term as showing guilt and shame, as opposed to anger. He wrote in his diary after one awkward party in March 1786: “They feel that they have behaved ill, and that I am sensible of it.”

John’s wife, Abigail, had joined him in Europe. She helped fortify him against the attacks, but also had to deal with slights of her own. For example, the wife of an MP once asked her, “But surely you prefer this country to America?” John Adams’ official relations with British authorities were more cordial than with the press and some of the public, but that didn’t necessarily show up in any kind of diplomatic results.

Diplomatic Standoff

John Adams’ primary goals while in London were to settle violations of the Treaty of Paris and arrange a trade agreement between the two nations. Among the violations, British troops continued to occupy posts along the Great Lakes. When this was brought up to Foreign Minister Lord Carmarthen, he countered that prewar debts owed by American farmers to British creditors had yet to be paid, also a treaty violation. This is one example of the stalemate on treaty issues that Adams was unable to break during his tenure.

Adams also made no progress on a trade agreement with the British. The trade balance was firmly in London’s favor at this time. They felt no need to make concessions on items such as opening their West Indies ports to American ships. Unfortunately for Adams, he had just as many problems dealing with his own government as with Lord Carmarthen and the British.

This was because of the rules set forth under the Articles of Confederation. Congress had no power over foreign trade, so it could not help in arranging any trade agreement with Great Britain. The military was so weak under this system that it could do nothing about British forces on the Great Lakes even if it wanted to. Congress also proved slow in providing instructions to its ambassadors. In fact, when Adams requested to be relieved of his European posts in order to return home on January 24, 1787, Congress didn’t approve his request until October 5. Due to the slow pace of communications across the Atlantic Ocean, Adams didn’t receive this news until mid-December, almost a year after sending his request.

Progress Elsewhere

Though John Adams may have struggled in his negotiations with the British, this period was not unproductive for him. He, along with Thomas Jefferson, did finalize deals with several other nations. Prussia signed the only trade agreement that the Americans were able to complete during Adams’ term on August 8, 1786. A treaty with Morocco was signed in early 1787, in which the United States agreed to pay for the protection of American shipping. They also secured additional loans for the United States from the Dutch.

John Adams also made his thoughts known back home over the future of the United States government. The weakness of the Confederation Congress had led many to call for changes to, or an entire replacement of, the Articles of Confederation. Adams’ contribution to this debate was A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America, which he had published in London and shipped to America. In this book, Adams argued for a bicameral legislature (as opposed to the single Confederation Congress) and an executive branch empowered to carry out the laws and defend the nation. The book was well received in the States, and James Madison wrote that it would be “a powerful engine in forming the public opinion.”

Return to America

John Adams made so little headway during his three years in London that his post would remain vacant for the next four years. In his final meeting with George III, the king assured him that when the Americans met their treaty obligations, his government would as well. After Adams left London on March 30, 1788, the Westminster Evening Post reported that he “settled all his concerns with great honor; and whatever his political tenets may have been, he was much respected and esteemed in this country.”

No one knew at the time, but this would not be the last time an Adams would represent his nation in the Court of St. James. In 1815, following another Anglo-American war, John Quincy Adams would assume his father’s former position in the diplomatic corps.

Read more about John Adams and why Independence Day may not actually be on July 4. Click here now!

References

Butterfield, L.H. et al., eds. Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, Vol. 3. Cambridge, MA: Belkamp Press of Harvard University Press, 1962.

Ellis, Joseph J. First Family: Abigail Adams & John. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010.

Holton, Woody. Abigail Adams. New York: Free Press, 2009.

Madison, James. Volume 1 of Letters and Other Writings of James Madison. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott & Company, 1865. Accessed June 21, 2014. http://books.google.com/.

McCullough, David. John Adams. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001.

United States Department of State. “The United Kingdom-Countries-Office of the Historian.” http://history.state.gov/countries/united-kingdom. Accessed June 15, 2014.