The Impact of India’s 1947 Partition on Kashmir

The Partition of British India in August 1947 was one of the most significant and traumatic events of the 20th century. It split the Indian subcontinent into two nations: India and Pakistan. People fled their homes, some with bags, others with nothing but their stories. In the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, lived its king, Maharaja Hari Singh, a Hindu man ruling a Muslim-majority kingdom, uncertain of his next step. What followed in the days, months, and years ahead would shape generations.

Shubh Samant explains.

Hari Singh Bahadur, Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir from 1925 to 1952. Photo, circa 1931.

A Princely State in Limbo

Hari Singh had hoped for independence. He dreamed of neutrality, of sovereignty untouched by the religious lines hastily drawn by the English. But dreams, like borders, are fragile. 

In October 1947, Pashtun tribesmen from Pakistan’s North-West Frontier Province invaded Kashmir. Singh, desperate for support, signed the Instrument of Accession to India. Indian troops were airlifted in, and the first war between India and Pakistan began. The United Nations intervened in 1949, brokering a ceasefire that created the Line of Control. But it was no peace, just a pause. Kashmir was now divided: Pakistan held Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan; India retained the lush Valley, Jammu, and Ladakh.

Geopolitical Turbulence

As the Cold War deepened, Kashmir became a pawn on the global chessboard. India held it up as a symbol of secularism - a Muslim-majority region in a Hindu-majority nation. Pakistan, meanwhile, viewed it as the unfinished business of Partition. The two nations fought again in 1965, and once more in 1999, across the icy heights of Kargil. 

In the 1960s, Chinese troops quietly moved into Aksai Chin, adding a third player to the equation. Decades later, the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor, cutting through Gilgit-Baltistan, would draw in global economic and strategic interests even more deeply. 

Then came August 5, 2019. The Indian government, under Prime Minister Narendra Modi, revoked Article 370, stripping Jammu and Kashmir of its special status. That day began with a blackout in Srinagar, no internet, no phone calls. The move was hailed by some as a bold step toward integration; others condemned it as a constitutional betrayal. Either way, it marked another fracture in a long-fractured land.

Socio-economic Fallout

Conflict has long stalked Kashmir’s streets. Checkpoints, barbed wire, and the green of military fatigues became part of everyday life. Tourism, the crown jewel of the region’s economy, faded like the reflections in Dal Lake.

Weaving workshops in Pulwama were once filled with laughter and the rhythmic tapping of looms. Now, they stand mostly silent. Schools have been shuttered repeatedly, either from curfews or fear. Hospitals are understaffed, and joblessness eats away at the young. In the 1990s, the insurgency that took root claimed lives and futures. Among its victims were not just militants and soldiers, but teachers, musicians, shopkeepers – and the truth.

One of the deepest wounds remains the exodus of the Kashmiri Pandits. Families were forced to become refugees in their own nation, fleeing amid threats and violence, leaving homes, temples, and history behind. 

The insurgency that began in 1989, fueled by local discontent and cross-border terrorism, led to tens of thousands of deaths and the mass exodus of Kashmiri Pandits from the valley. Many have lived as refugees within their own country for over three decades, unable to return to their ancestral homes.

Recent Escalations

In April 2025, a terrorist attack in Pahalgam, Indian-administered Kashmir, resulted in the deaths of 25 Indian tourists and one Nepali national. The Resistance Front (TRF) claimed responsibility for the attack. India accused Pakistan of sponsoring the militants, though Pakistan denied its involvement.

In retaliation, on May 7, 2025, India, under 'Operation Sindoor' launched missile and air strikes on nine alleged militant camps in both Pakistan and Pakistan-administered Kashmir. The strikes, lasting just 25 minutes, marked the deepest India has struck inside Pakistan since the 1971 war.

The conflict escalated rapidly, with both nations exchanging missile and drone attacks, resulting in civilian casualties and raising the risk of war between the nuclear-armed neighbors. A ceasefire was announced on May 10, 2025, following an agreement between India and Pakistan, said to have been mediated by U.S. President Donald Trump.

The recent conflict has also had political ramifications. In Pakistan, public support for the military surged, with Army Chief Asim Munir promoted to Field Marshal, solidifying his position as the country's most powerful figure.

What’s Next?

For any lasting resolution, the voices of the Kashmiri people, Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, and others, must be central. Economic development cannot replace political empowerment. Peace requires more than ceasefires; it demands recognition of historical grievances, a commitment to justice, and above all, the willingness to listen.

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References

· Schofield, Victoria. Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unfinished War. I.B. Tauris, 2003.

· Bose, Sumantra. Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace. Harvard University Press, 2003.

· BBC News. “Article 370: What happened with Kashmir and why it matters.” August 6, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49234708

· The Diplomat. “Kashmir After Article 370: Repression and Resilience.” January 24, 2020. https://thediplomat.com

· Human Rights Watch. “India: Revoke Abusive Laws in Kashmir.” August 5, 2020.https://www.hrw.org

Kashmir: A Divided Territory Since 1947

The region of Kashmir largely lies across the territory of modern-day India and Pakistan. The area has had a tumultuous history since India became independent in 1947. Here, Manan Shah explains what happened to Kashmir in 1947 and the years after.

India soldiers during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–48.

In Asia lies the picturesque region of Kashmir, which records history from as early as the Neolithic period. Over a period of time numerous sovereigns have ruled over the land, which has established and benefited their empires. The area has always benefited from its geography and has proved to be a major trade route which connected Central Asia to the north of India. It was not at all surprising to see rulers take refuge in the beautiful valley of Kashmir, since it is protected by the natural frontiers and difficult terrain.

While we shall not go into the detailed past of Kashmir, the article takes into consideration the events that have shaped the current socio-political character of the valley, thus making it one of the world's most militarized zones. As of today it stands as a politically disintegrated country which is a constant battle ground for three nuclear powered states - India, Pakistan and China. It is a place where human rights abuse is no exception and people do not have basic rights.

1947

In 1947, world's biggest colonial power Britain left the territory of India after colonizing it for about 200 years, thus marking its independence; however, dividing the Indian sub-continent into two separate countries, India and Pakistan, the former largely for Hindus and latter largely for Muslims. It should be noted that prior to independence, India had about 584 princely states, states that were ruled by rulers while acknowledging British sovereignty. Kashmir was one of them. At the same time these princely states were given an option either to join the union of India or union of Pakistan and few had the option to remain independent. Hari Singh, the Hindu ruler to his Muslim subjects, tried to delay his decision thinking this could maintain the independence of Kashmir. Meanwhile, rebellion from the west and infiltration from Pakistan's tribal groups into the territory forced him to sign the famous “Instrument of Accession” of Indian Union on October 26, 1947 - against the will of the people. The document was signed with three conditions that the Union of India has control over: defense, external affairs and communications. This gave rise to local warfare. While popular opinion in the valley says Kashmiris' accession to the Union of India was temporary and was asked as a favor to protect their territory and to provide essential help, it was agreed that the Indian Army would evacuate as soon as there was no external threat to the land. However the irony is the situation in Kashmir has never been stable since then.  Both India and Pakistan never fail to put the blame on each other, time and again.

The matter was put forward to the United Nations in 1948. The resolution was passed by the UN to restore order. The three-step recommendation suggested that Pakistan withdraw all the forces that they had infiltrated into the territory of Kashmir. Secondly, India was asked to reduce the number of forces to the minimum level required. Thirdly, a plebiscite was to be conducted. As we speak right now, none has taken place as both India and Pakistan raised objections to the resolution. In January 1949, India and Pakistan agreed a ceasefire line that divided the country into two temporarily. Although, that so-called “temporary” partition still exists, even after 72 years. All this is happening in the democratic country of India, as it occupies most of the territory of Kashmir, followed by Pakistan, and then China’s incursion in 1962 to Aksai Chin.

Since the 1940s

Over the years Kashmiris have raised their voice against the abuse even though the two nuclear powers remain silent or blame each other. While a small percentage of the population wants to accede to India and a substantial part favors Pakistan, most of the population chooses to remain independent.

People have continuously feared and resisted the presence of Indian Army in the state due to the threat to their lives. They fear India is not holding up its promise of evacuating the land of Kashmir as the India has made it public that Kashmir belongs to them. Bills were passed in parliament to change the character of the state and to legitimize India's claim over the land. Recently there has been the abrogation of article 370 and 35A, which protects the demographic status of Jammu & Kashmir in a constitutional form. The state was put under lockdown and all means of communications was suspended for an indefinite period of time, high speed internet being one, which was restored after 17 months.

Kashmir’s independence right and claim was even acknowledged by Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, who said on January 2, 1952:

“Kashmir is not the property of India or Pakistan. It belongs to Kashmiri people. When Kashmiris acceded to India, we made it clear to the leader of Kashmiri people that we could ultimately by the verdict of their plebiscite. If they tell me to walk out, I will have no hesitation in quitting Kashmir.

We have taken the issue to the United Nations and given our word of honor for a peaceful solution. As a great nation, we cannot go back on it. We have left the question of a final solution to the people of Kashmir and we are determined to abide by their decision.”

Since independence both India and Pakistan share a bitter relationship and therefore Kashmir has served as the vote bank for both. It has time and again helped political parties to shift the momentum in their favor. It has become a weak point for both states to shift public opinion and deviate them from other issues.

India and Pakistan have fought three wars over Kashmir, in 1947, 1965 and 1999. They caused numerous casualties and human rights abuses. People were raped, tortured and murdered in cold blood. Today the state is under threat, there are continuous attacks on the state’s identity and people’s voices being suppressed. As Basharat Peer writes, “Srinagar* (Summer capital of Jammu & Kashmir) is never winning and never being defeated.” 

What do you think of the article? Let us know below.

Manan Shah is a student of Archeology and Ancient History who writes for independent publications. Born and brought up in Kashmir he shares an intriguing insight of the culture and political history of the region.

His email is shahmanan74@gmail.com

The Beginnings and Growth of Islam in Kashmir

Kashmir has been a major center of learning since ancient times. It has been a seat of religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism (particularly Brahmanism), and Islam. Kashmir today is a largely Islamic state, but what led to the beginnings and growth of Islam in Kashmir? Manan Shah explains.

The ruins of the Temple and Enclosure of Marttand or the Sun, near Bhawan, from the pre-Islamic era in Kashmir. Probable date of temple A.D. 490-555. Probable date of colonnade A.D. 693-729. Photo taken by John Burke in 1868. Available here.

The advent of Islam in Kashmir can be roughly traced from the 14th century with the conversion of Rinchan from Buddhism to Islam, who later came to be known as Sultan Sadr-Ul-Din, and therefore becoming the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir (although earlier efforts were made by Muhammad-bin-Qasim during his invasion of Sindh). Rinchen originally came as a fugitive from Tibet during the reign of Shahdeva. Interestingly, Rinchan’s genetic roots have been traced to a royal bloodline in Tibet. Shahdeva, on the other hand, had an able minister called Ramachandra, who later ascended to the throne and was assisted by his daughter Kota Rani. Rinchen soon became envious of Ramachandra due to which he executed the latter and made his way to the throne. He even ended up marrying Ramachandra’s daughter. He was later accompanied by Shah Mir of Swat, protégé of Ramachandra, who later served as a minister and then overthrew Kota Rani to ascend to the throne. 

Rinchen’s change of faith is generally thought to be due to Bul-Bul Shah who arrived in Kashmir in 1324 AD. The birth name of Bul-Bul Shah was Sayyid Abdur Rahman, although some suggest his name was Sayyid Sharaf-ud-din. Bul-Bul Shah hailed from Turkistan and belonged to the Suhrawardi school of Sufism. Bul-Bul Shah’s influence over Rinchan was immense and so Rinchan learned the teachings of Islam. Another possible reason behind his conversion is political gain. It is believed that he initially wanted to convert to Hinduism but others did not want that, which led him to convert to Islam in order to maintain a strong alliance. Rinchan’s conversion caused a great impact in the society of Kashmir as many people slowly started converting to Islam in order to follow his footsteps. Hence, a place of gathering was constructed which came to be known as Bul-Bul Langar in Shar-e-Khas, the first mosque in Kashmir. It has unfortunately been reduced to ruins. On the other hand, some rulers and ministers such as Udyandeva and Bikhsana Bhatta did not compromise their faiths. After the death of Rinchin, Kota Rani married Udyandeva who was the brother of Shahdeva.

The growth of Islam

The conversion of people in Kashmir was further encouraged with the arrival of the Sayyids, the most prominent being Mir Siyyid Ali Hamadani, who is also known as Shah-e-Hamadan and Ameer-i-Kabir and Ali-i-Sani. Shah-e-Hamdan was born on 14 of Rajab 714 AH (1312 AD) at Hamadan in Iran. He came to Kashmir in 1372 AD during the reign of Sultan Shihab-ul-Din. It is said he was accompanied by his seven hundred followers. He stayed in the Kashmir Valley for seven years and later visited the valley at least three more times. During his last visit to the valley, he had to cut his trip short on account of ill health. He took his last breath in Hazara.

The arrival of Shah-e-Hamadan in Kashmir can also be traced to the advent of Sufism in Kashmir. Some temples were converted into mosques during this time by the people who had recently converted to Islam. Stories and legends centered around the shrine of Shah-e-Hamadan, with the claim that two leading Hindu ascetics along with their followers accepted Islam in the presence of Shah-e-Hamadan after he displayed his supernatural powers in the exact same location. 

Apart from Shah-e-Hamadan, there were other Sayyids who had come to Kashmir to preach and propagate Islam before the arrival of Shah-e-Hamadan himself. Sayyid Jala-ud-Din of Bukhara, Sayyid Taj-ud-din and Sayyid Hussain Simnani played major roles. 

Moreover, Shah-e-Hamadan’s co-workers and disciples such as Mir Sayyid Haider, Sayyid Jamal-ul-din, and Sayyid Jamal-ul-din Alai carried on his work. His son Mir Mohammad Hamadan carried on his legacy too. Also trying to carry on his work, Mir Mohammad Hamadan prohibited the sale of wine in the valley and also put a ban on Sati and forbid gambling and nach (dance). On his arrival to Kashmir, he was accompanied by three hundred Sayyids.                          

Influence of the Sayyids

The Sayyids influenced many ascetics in Kashmir who then came to be known as Rishis or Babas. They further helped to spread and propagate Islam with their mystic and philosophical thoughts. Their profound knowledge of Islam, humility, and respect for other religions attracted many people towards this new faith. It was believed that they often had supernatural powers or could make predictions.

Saints and Reshis like Shaikh Nur-ud-Din, Baba Nasr-ul-din, and Sheikh Hamza Makdum practically converted the whole valley through their precepts. Many of the Reshis and their disciples constructed Ziyarat which would uphold the tradition of their saints to which people pay tribute to this day.

Another reason that influenced conversion to Islam in the Kashmir Valley was poverty. Since the economy of the state was in crisis, the Sayyids brought many crafts and activities with them which people later took as their profession in search of a better livelihood. Another possible reason could be Brahman dominance in society and a rift between Brahmanism and Buddhism. In addition the emergence of landlords, unrest and mutiny in garrisons, quick successions of kings, and a lack of intellect and humility among ministers also resulted in unrest. This eased the path for Sayyids and Reshis, leading to the current Islamic nature of Kashmir, which has not only influenced the religious character but also socio-cultural aspects of the Valley.

Therefore, the state of Kashmir, which today represents itself as a Muslim majority state, once went through large-scale religious conversion, political, economical and social changes. This eventually changed the demography of the state. However, what never changed for Kashmir and its people is its indigenous aspect, which is essentially the amalgamation of different cultures, traditions and customs.

What do you think about the history of religion in Kashmir? Let us know below.

Bibliography 

G.M.D Sufi, Kashir, From the Earliest times to our Own.

P.N.K Bamzai, Cultural and Political History of Kashmir 

W.R Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir