One of the defining aspects of socialism is the number of variations that have developed within that school of thought over the ages; ones that reflect the cultural, economic and political frameworks in which they have emerged. Often, these came about as a response to colonialism; providing a philosophical basis for nationalist parties that often came to lead the lands whose independence from colonial rule was a key goal. Examples include Melanesian Socialism in the continent of Oceania, which found its expression in the state of Vanuatu following its independence from Britain and France in 1980, and African Socialism, which became the governing ideology of many post-colonial nations across the continent like Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania in the east, Mali, Guinea and Burkina Faso in the west, Zambia and Madagascar in the south, and Tunisia and Algeria in the north. But there is a variation of socialist thought that proved hugely successful throughout the course of the past century in delivering (after many of its proponents attained power) a better alternative to what had existed under European rule. That variation is the English Caribbean socialist tradition.
Vittorio Trevitt explains.
Note: In the context of this article, the term “English Caribbean” refers to those countries in the region where English is the main language and which had once been British colonies.
Leader of Grenada Sir Eric Matthew Gairy.
The rise of socialism in the English Caribbean as a governing force can be traced back to the early Twentieth Century at a time when the region was hit badly by the Great Depression, with lower pay and job losses by-products of that calamity. Civil unrest spread throughout the islands, leading tragically to the deaths of many people. Commissions were set up to examine the root causes of these disturbances, examining the social and economic conditions prevailing throughout the region (such as widespread poverty and educational deficiencies) while putting forward proposals for change that would see the light of day in the years that followed such as autonomy, universal voting rights and the legalisation of trade unions; the latter of which proliferated. At the same time, socialist parties came into being. Both of these groups not only focused on bread-and-butter issues, but also called for better political freedoms; a goal that was gradually reached. In 1944, Jamaica adopted universal suffrage, with Trinidad following suit a year later. Socialists benefited from these changes by obtaining parliamentary representation and, in several cases like that of Jamaica, leadership of their home islands when self-governance was gradually rolled out across the Caribbean. This led to independence for most of the English Caribbean islands, with Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago the first to achieve this in 1962 and the last (St. Kitts and Nevis) in 1983.
Symbolically, a link existed between unions and socialist parties in this part of the British Empire, with several union leaders belonging to these parties subsequently becoming leading political figures in later years. Most of these individuals would prove themselves to be great social reformers, leaving behind a legacy of positive development that did much to overcome the defects and inequities of colonial rule. Although socialist parties failed to gain national political power in Trinidad and Tobago, Belize and the Bahamas, they successfully did so in most parts of the English Caribbean, enabling them to give life to their principles in the process.
Antigua and Barbuda to Saint Kitts and Nevis
One of the most successful socialist administrations in the region was led by Vere Bird in Antigua and Barbuda. A trade unionist who organised Antigua’s first ever union and later served as a member of the island’s Executive Council (during which time he spearheaded major reforms in housing and rural development), Bird became Chief Minister of the islands in 1960, going on to serve as Premier and later Prime Minister when the islands gained their independence in 1981. During his long tenure, which lasted for a total of 29 years, several beneficial reforms were undertaken including a welfare aid scheme and the establishment of gratuitous medical care and secondary education. Bird was a very popular figure, with the living standards of Antiguans rising to become the highest in the region under his leadership.
Equally noteworthy was the Labour Party of Saint Kitts and Nevis, which led that nation to independence and has provided the majority of the country’s governments since 1960. The legislative output of Labour’s first two decades in office was nothing short of phenomenal. A National Provident Fund was established to provide financial support for various risks while other measures aimed at benefiting working people became law. The 1966 Employment of Children Ordinance sought to prevent exploitative child labour while bereavement leave was established, together with new infrastructural developments, improvements in pay for (and measures aimed at improving the health and safety of) various segments of the workforce, and the building of new schools, health facilities and low-income housing.
Mixed success
Less successful electorally, but with notable achievements when it did hold the reins of power, was the Labour Party of Saint Lucia. After briefly holding office from 1960 to 1964, Labour went into a long period of opposition before making a triumphant return in 1979. Although torn by ideological divisions between moderates and radicals that would ultimately lead to the administration’s early demise a few years later (when a radical faction of Labour and an opposition party together voted down a 1981 budget), Labour made up for lost time with a series of forward-looking policy initiatives. A redistributive budget was introduced that provided for (amongst other items) the elimination of healthcare user fees; a policy that was successfully carried out. A locally-owned National Commercial Bank was also set up, together with a National Development Bank, while a free school textbook scheme was improved. More enduring was the tenure of the Labour Party in neighbouring Dominica. Continuously in power from 1961 to 1979, it presided over noteworthy endeavours including a land reform programme benefiting thousands of people and legislation aimed at promoting child wellbeing, safeguarding pay, and providing social security.
Another successful socialist party in the English Caribbean was that of the Democratic Labour Party of Barbados. Under Errol Barrow, who led Barbados both under self-government and independence for a total period of 16 years, a considerable amount of social legislation was passed that greatly helped in delivering greater levels of justice and prosperity for the Barbadian people. A school feeding programme was set up along with a comprehensive welfare system which would be further developed during Barrow’s tenure with additions such as a minimum pension, employment injury benefits and a social assistance scheme for those in need. Other beneficial reforms dealt with providing a degree of guaranteed employment for those employed in agriculture, redundancy pay for workers, and encouraging access to post-secondary education. In addition, Barrow greatly contributed to the island’s economic development through the encouragement of tourism and industry. It is perhaps not surprising that Barrow is described as a “National Hero;” a title arguably well deserved.
In St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Labour administrations led by its founder Milton Cato governed the islands for a total of 15 years, during which time several socially just measures were implemented. A social welfare fund for certain employees was set up, while new homes, secondary schools and health clinics were built and legislation passed providing for wage councils for numerous sectors of the labour force. Hundreds of employment opportunities were also realised as a result of efforts by the state to encourage international investment and industrial development.
More radical
Although most of the Twentieth Century English Caribbean socialist leaders followed a social-democratic approach, some were influenced by the more radical, anti-capitalist side of socialism. A noteworthy example can be found in the case of Grenada. For many years, the Grenadian people endured the misrule of Sir Eric Gairy (ironically a former trade unionist), whose tenure was marked by state repression and abuse of power; culminating in his overthrow and replacement by the Marxist New Jewel Movement under the leadership of Maurice Bishop. The successive Bishop administration was a major improvement over the Gairy years, with many social advances realised. Women’s rights were promoted, with the institution of equal pay, female suffrage and maternity pay, while other aspects of social development were emphasised. These included measures to improve housing and the availability of dental care and other health services, the encouragement of co-operatives, the freeing of many people from taxation, and educational endeavours including free meals, milk and uniforms for schoolchildren, efforts to combat illiteracy, and a sizeable expansion in the number of higher education scholarships. Symbolically, state intervention in the economy was also increased; albeit by a moderate amount. From a socialist standpoint, the record of the Bishop administration was certainly an impressive one. Internal struggles within the ruling party, however, led to Bishop’s death four years later when an opposing faction carried out a coup; precipitating a controversial American intervention. Despite its bloody end, the Bishop era was noteworthy for the improvements it made to people’s lives; an example of triumphant English Caribbean socialism in action.
Similarly radical was Cheddi Jagan, an idealistic Marxist who led Guyana for two non-consecutive terms and whose governments introduced notable initiatives such as better pay and lower hours for many workers, the training of new teachers, and the building of a major university. Health conditions were improved while measures to clear unfit habitations and promote home ownership were undertaken, along with support for farmers in the form of agricultural schemes, a marketing corporation and a new training school. Jagan’s reformist agenda was continued under his equally radical successor Forbes Burnham (the nation’s first leader at independence), whose time in office witnessed the enactment of important reforms in areas like educational provision, social insurance, shelter, and irrigation, while also greatly extending the size of the public sector.
Another reformer of a similar ideological persuasion was Michael Manley, who served as prime minister of Jamaica from 1972 to 1980 and from 1989 to 1992; the most populous nation in the English Caribbean to have a socialist administration. The son of Norman Manley, a Fabian Socialist who led Jamaica for a number of years during its period of self-government, Michael Manley was the first democratic socialist to lead the island since its independence. His term was one of the most progressive Jamaica had ever known. A multitude of developmentalist measures designed to enhance the quality of everyday life was rolled out, including a national minimum wage, rent regulations to help tenants, extended access to banking for ordinary people, the promotion of homebuilding and adult education, financial support for laid-off workers, an expansion of free health care for the poor, programmes to improve child nutrition, and a new assistance benefit for physically and mentally disabled persons. New rights were also introduced for women and illegitimate children, while the age of voting eligibility was brought down and the participation of labour in industrial undertakings was encouraged. As a reflection of Manley’s radicalism, a number of nationalisations was carried out, a major government income-generating levy was imposed on bauxite (an important industry in that part of the world), and ties were forged with Cuba and Eastern Bloc countries; an arguably controversial move at the time of the Cold War. All in all, Manley’s governing People’s National Party left behind a record of empowering, transformative change that many remember fondly to this day.
Not so effective leaders
Despite the accomplishments of the many governments led by English Caribbean socialist leaders, one cannot ignore the leaders with stained records. In Guyana, the image of the Burnham years was marred by authoritarianism, electoral fraud and unwise economic decisions including a ban on imported food that led to shortages. The long tenure of Antigua and Barbuda’s Vere Bird was tarnished by political scandals which implicated both Bird and his own son, who himself served in government. Milton Cato’s historical reputation in St. Lucia is also mixed, with repressive measures taken against (amongst others) teachers (the latter during a strike), while bans existed on calypsos and certain pieces of literature during Cato’s time in office; moves that were far from just and democratic.
In the case of Jamaica, while Manley is rightly venerated for his contributions to human development, the economic record of his governments was far from perfect. His tenure was plagued by a rising deficit and faltering economy which resulted in IMF-negotiated austerity measures that led to a drop in purchasing power and rises in joblessness and the rate of inflation. The government broke with the IMF in 1980 in an effort to pursue a different course, but this was not enough to prevent the People’s National Party from losing an election that year and its replacement by its traditional rival; the conservative Labour Party. Manley returned as PM in an election held nine years later, riding on a wave of discontent with the Labour government which, during its near-decade in power, embarked upon a harsh programme of neoliberal cutbacks. Manley’s second administration was nevertheless a more moderate, market-friendly one than the first. Although it carried out a series of anti-poverty initiatives in keeping with its progressive ideology and the needs of its supporters, straightened economic circumstances led to Manley’s government pursuing a policy of fiscal restraint; resulting in spending on numerous social services declining steadily during his final term. Additionally, a privatisation policy was pursued while inflation spiked as a result of the administration printing money as a means of financing deficits in the public sector. As has often been the case with progressive parties throughout history, Manley’s last administration found itself torn between doing the right thing and exercising fiscal caution during a time of great economic difficulty.
Legacy
Although the record of Twentieth Century socialist parties in the English Caribbean wasn’t perfect, the major contributions that they made to the social and economic development of the region cannot be ignored. Guided by an ideology based on justice and equality, socialist administrations of the Twentieth Century for the most part left the region fairer and wealthier; a legacy that governing left-wing parties in the English Caribbean continue to build on today. As with other variations of socialism, the positive aspects of English Caribbean socialism are ones that historians and others should rightly celebrate and learn from today.
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