Polycrates of Samos: The Tyrant who Courted Fortune and Tempted Fate

In the swirling mists of early 6th century BCE Greek history, few figures shine brightly and fall as dramatically as Polycrates of Samos. His life reads like a tragic play, a meteoric rise to power, an era of unprecedented maritime dominance, cultural patronage that rivalled Athens, and ultimately, betrayal and death. Charismatic and cunning, ruthless yet visionary, Polycrates embodied the paradoxes of tyranny in ancient Greece. His story not only reveals the ambitions and anxieties of a Hellenic tyrant but also the fragile balance between power and hubris in the ancient world.

Terry Bailey explains.

Polycrates' Crucifixion by Salvator Rosa, circa 1664.

The Maritime Tyrant

Born around 538 BCE into the ruling elite of Samos, an island in the eastern Aegean Sea, Polycrates seized power during a time of political unrest. By 538 BCE, he had taken control of the island alongside his two brothers, Pantagnotus and Syloson, however, Polycrates was never one to share. Within a few years, he had orchestrated the exile and death of his siblings and became the sole ruler, a classic tyrant in the mold of his contemporaries, but more daring than most.

What set Polycrates apart was his bold vision of turning Samos from a minor island power into a dominant naval and commercial force in the Aegean. In a world where most tyrannies were land-based, Polycrates built his power upon the sea.

Naval Supremacy

Polycrates is best known for assembling one of the most powerful navies in the Greek world. According to Herodotus, he commanded 100 pentekonters (50-oared ships), a formidable force that allowed him to dominate the eastern Mediterranean. His fleet brought Samos wealth through trade and piracy, extending his influence beyond the island's shores.

This wealth allowed Polycrates to pour resources into cultural and architectural projects. The most famous is the Heraion, a grand sanctuary dedicated to the goddess Hera. The temple, with its massive columns and intricate sculptures, was considered a marvel of the ancient Greek world. It symbolized not only devotion to the gods but the reach and sophistication of Samian society under his reign.

Additionally, it was one most important ancient sanctuaries dedicated to the goddess Hera, the queen of the Olympian gods in Greek mythology. It was located near the ancient mouth of the Imbrasos River, where legend claimed Hera was born under a lygos tree. The sanctuary became a major center of worship from the early Iron Age, growing in prestige and architectural grandeur throughout the Archaic and Classical periods.

The centerpiece of the sanctuary was the great Temple of Hera, an ambitious structure that went through multiple phases of construction. The most famous version, built around 570 BCE by the architects Rhoikos and Theodoros was among the first of the colossal Ionic temples in the Greek world. This temple featured 155 columns, some of which stood over 20 meters tall, making it one of the earliest and largest dipteral temples, (with two rows of columns surrounding the cella). Although it was destroyed by an earthquake and fire before completion, its scale and technical innovation demonstrated the wealth and ambition of Samos at the time.

Excavations at the Heraion have revealed rich offerings made to the goddess, including jeweler, statues, weapons, and even imported artefacts from Egypt and the Near East. These finds reflect not only religious devotion but also Samos's status as a significant player in Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean trade networks. The sanctuary's importance continued through the Classical and Hellenistic periods, although its influence waned under Roman rule. Today, the site is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, offering insight into ancient Greek religion, architecture, and the cultural connections of early Greece.

In addition to, the marvel of Heraion, Polycrates was instrumental in ordering the construction of the aqueduct known as the Tunnel of Eupalinos an engineering marvel of the ancient world, a tunnel over 1,000 meters long which was dug through Mount Kastro to supply water to the city. Designed by the engineer Eupalinos of Megara, the tunnel was dug from both ends simultaneously and met in the middle with astonishing accuracy. It remains one of the most extraordinary feats of pre-modern engineering and is considered one of the most remarkable engineering feats of the ancient world. Its primary purpose was to serve as an aqueduct, bringing fresh water from a spring on Mount Kastro to the city of Samos, which faced threats of siege and needed a secure and hidden water supply. As indicated what made this engineering feat especially noteworthy is that it was excavated simultaneously from both ends, an extraordinary achievement in ancient engineering.

The engineer Eupalinos of Megara, had workers carve through solid limestone using basic hand tools such as hammers and chisels under his supervision. Eupalinos employed a clever geometric approach and advanced surveying techniques to ensure that the two teams of workers starting from opposite sides of the mountain would meet successfully in the middle. While they did not align perfectly in height or direction, the final connection was close enough to allow the project to succeed, with only a minor correction needed near the meeting point.

The tunnel functioned for centuries and stands today as proof of the ingenuity of ancient Greek engineering and mathematics. It is considered one of the earliest examples of applied geometry in large-scale civil construction and was described by Herodotus, who called it a marvel of its time. Today, the Tunnel of Eupalinos is not only a significant archaeological site but also a symbol of how ancient civilizations overcame complex technical challenges with creativity and precision.

Polycrates was also known as a patron of poets and intellectuals. His court hosted Anacreon, the lyric poet famed for his verses on love, wine and revelry, with the tradition of Anacreontic poetry endured in later Greek literature and beyond. Although the original corpus attributed to Anacreon was relatively small, his influence was significant, giving rise to a distinct poetic style characterized by light-hearted themes, charming simplicity, and musical cadence.

This style was imitated by many poets in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, reflecting a cultural appreciation for the refined pleasures of life and the human experience of love and aging.

In the post-Anacreontic period of Ancient Greece, poets increasingly turned toward the personal and the intimate, a shift that continued into the Hellenistic age. One notable development was the emergence of the so-called Anacreontea, a collection of short poems written in Anacreontic style by later, anonymous authors.

These were not written by Anacreon himself but maintained the tone, meter, and themes associated with his work. They often dealt with themes of erotic longing, the fleeting nature of youth, and indulgence in the joys of wine and song. These poems became popular in both the Greek and Roman worlds, and later even saw revival in Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe.

Poets such as Callimachus and Theocritus, though more refined and intellectual in tone, drew upon the lyrical tradition that Anacreon had helped to shape. They contributed to a broader cultural movement that emphasized polished, crafted poetry over epic grandeur.

In this context, Anacreon's legacy lived on as part of a broader aesthetic turn toward the personal, the playful, and the urbane. His spirit found a new voice in subsequent generations. In this sense, Polycrates by fostering a vibrant cultural atmosphere of poets including Anacreon's work can indirectly be attributed to the love of poetry not only across the Greek world but also to the continued inspiration that the poetry of Anacreon had through time.

Needless to say, the patronage of the arts by Polycrates elevated Samos to an intellectual and artistic center, rivalling other great Greek cities.

Vision, charisma and maritime strategy

Polycrates' strengths lay in his strategic acumen, boldness, and persuasive charisma. His control of the sea allowed him to maintain dominance not just militarily but economically. By turning piracy into a state enterprise, he filled the Samian coffers and extended his influence over key Aegean trade routes. His magnetism attracted allies, scholars, and artists to his court. Politically, he was a master manipulator, able to eliminate rivals and maintain internal control despite the inherently unstable nature of Greek tyranny.

However, like many Greek tales, Polycrates' story turned with the wheel of fortune. His downfall began with a pattern of arrogance that alarmed even his allies.

The Ring of Fate

In a tale recounted by Herodotus, Polycrates' friend and ally, Pharaoh Amasis II of Egypt, warned him of his unbroken streak of good fortune. Fearing the jealousy of the gods, Amasis urged him to sacrifice his most prized possession to avoid divine retribution. Polycrates threw a bejeweled ring into the sea, only for it to be returned days later inside a fish. Amasis, interpreting this as a sign of impending doom, severed ties with him. The story symbolized the Greek belief in nemesis, the inevitable divine punishment for hubris.

Diplomatic isolation and Persian tensions

Additionally, Polycrates had made powerful enemies. His dominance angered neighboring Greek city-states and drew the attention of the Persian Empire. Around 522 BCE, he aligned himself briefly with Cambyses II of Persia during the invasion of Egypt, further eroding trust among his Greek peers and former allies.

His end came at the hands of Oroetes, the Persian satrap of Sardis. Pretending to offer sanctuary and riches, Oroetes lured Polycrates to Asia Minor under false pretenses. When he arrived, Polycrates was captured, tortured, and crucified a humiliating death for a man who had defied fate for so long. His mutilated body was displayed as a warning, a final punishment for his unchecked ambition.

Polycrates' failures were not merely strategic but moral and political. His rule, while culturally rich, was deeply autocratic. He ruled through fear, eliminated rivals, and sustained his state with piracy and extortion. His aggressive expansion and volatile diplomacy left Samos politically isolated after his death. The infrastructure he created endured, but the geopolitical power of Samos crumbled swiftly in the wake of his absence.

His greatest misstep, perhaps, was failing to recognize the limits of fortune. In a culture that revered moderation and feared hubris, Polycrates stood too tall for too long.

Despite his fall, Polycrates' legacy endured for centuries. He was both admired and feared. Ancient writers used his life as a cautionary tale about the dangers of overreaching success and the wrath of the gods. Yet, he was also seen as a man of vision who brought prosperity and grandeur to Samos, turning it into a center of culture and innovation.

His reign is emblematic of early Greek tyranny, capable of great things when guided by ambition and vision, but always at risk of collapsing under its weight. Polycrates may have died alone and betrayed, but he remains one of antiquity's most fascinating and complex rulers, a man who grasped greatness with both hands and paid the price for holding on too tightly.

Needless to say, the story of Polycrates of Samos is a study of both brilliance and tragedy, a vivid encapsulation of the highs and lows that defined the ancient Greek world. At his zenith, he turned a modest island into a naval powerhouse, a cultural beacon, and a symbol of daring ambition. His patronage of the arts in Samos rivalled Athens in artistic output; the engineering projects he supported astonished the ancient world; and through his control of the seas, he commanded fear and respect.

Yet the same traits that propelled him to greatness, his audacity, his confidence, and his relentless pursuit of dominance, also laid the seeds of his undoing. His legacy, preserved by poets, chroniclers, and ruins alike, is one of stark contrasts, a tyrant who fostered beauty, a ruler whose vision reached beyond his time, but whose ambition knew no boundaries.

Polycrates' life reminds us that power in the ancient world was a fleeting and fragile thing, often balanced precariously on the whims of fortune and the caprice of the gods. He lived as a man blessed with extraordinary success, only to fall victim to the very forces he once seemed to command, a warning for the future.

In the end, Polycrates remains a timeless figure, an enduring paradox of ancient history. He is remembered not only for the tyranny he wielded but also for the cultural and technological brilliance he inspired. His life and death stretch across the centuries, offering a poignant reflection on the nature of power, the allure of greatness, and the inexorable price of hubris.

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Notes:

The legend of Polycrates' ring

The legend of Polycrates' ring, as preserved by Herodotus, became a foundational tale about the peril of excessive fortune and the inescapable designs of fate. In the story, the tyrant of Samos is warned by Pharaoh Amasis that such uninterrupted success is unnatural and will provoke divine retribution. To avert misfortune, Polycrates casts his most prized possession a richly jeweled ring into the sea. When the ring is miraculously returned to him inside a fish, it is taken as a sign not of protection, but of doom, confirming that even his attempts at humility cannot escape the orbit of fate. This tale resonated far beyond its Greek origins and found new life in later traditions.

In Christian parables and early medieval Christian teaching, this motif of divine will asserting itself despite human intervention became a central theme. The ring-in-the-fish narrative bears a striking resemblance to the biblical story of the coin in the fish's mouth (Matthew 17:27), where Jesus instructs Peter to find a coin for the temple tax inside a fish, symbolizing God's mysterious provision. Both tales involve an object of value retrieved from the sea within a fish, highlighting the divine's subtle but powerful role in controlling worldly fortunes. Unlike Polycrates' story, however, the Christian version is affirming rather than ominous, suggesting divine benevolence over divine punishment.

Medieval literature further transformed the motif of the returned treasure as a symbol of inescapable destiny. Writers like Boethius, in The Consolation of Philosophy, grappled with fortune's fickle nature and the limits of human control, echoing the cautionary tale of Polycrates. The legend was refracted into courtly romances and moralistic tales, where characters often attempted to defy fate, only to be swept back into its course.

The ring thus became more than a jewel, it symbolized the tension between earthly power and perceived higher judgment. Thus by the High Middle Ages, the idea that relentless good fortune could signal imminent doom was deeply ingrained in the European moral imagination, and Polycrates' tale remained a prototype for storytelling about hubris, divine justice, and the wheel of fortune. Therefore, showing that tales from the ancient have made the long journey transcending from ancient times to the modern world where under various makeovers the tales continue to resonate with the populous and are used by governing authorities.

Pentekonter

The pentekonter (πεντηκόντορος) was an ancient Greek galley, a long and narrow warship propelled primarily by oars and used during the Archaic and early Classical periods of Greek history. The name "pentekonter" comes from the Greek pentēkonta meaning "fifty," referring to the ship's fifty oarsmen, twenty-five on each side.

These vessels were among the earliest organized warships used by the Greeks and played a key role in the development of naval warfare in the Mediterranean.

Pentekonters were characterized by their speed, maneuverability, and relatively light construction. Their narrow beam and shallow draft made them ideal for coastal raids, reconnaissance, and quick troop transport. Although primarily driven by rowers, they often carried a single square sail mounted on a central mast to take advantage of favorable winds during longer voyages.

Despite their agility, they had limited cargo capacity and offered little protection to the crew, which made them less suitable for extended naval engagements or stormy open-sea travel.

The design of the pentekonter laid the foundation for the development of more advanced Greek warships, such as the trireme, which featured multiple rows of oars and greater offensive capabilities.

Nevertheless, pentekonters were instrumental in early Greek colonization, trade expansion, and the projection of naval power. They were versatile and could be used in battle and for exploration or communication between city-states. Over time, their military role diminished in favor of more complex vessels, but their influence on ancient naval engineering remained significant.

Trireme

The Greek word for trireme is τριήρης (triērēs), which is derived from: τρι- (tri-), meaning three, and-ήρης (-ērēs), which comes from ἐρέσσω (eréssō), meaning to row.

So, τριήρης means "three-rower" or "three-banked", referring to the ship's three tiers of oars on each side, manned by oarsmen.

This design was a hallmark of ancient Greek naval engineering, especially during the 5th century BCE when Athens used fleets of triremes in naval battles like Salamis, these vessels found their pedigree in the earlier pentekonter.

The 431-404 BC Peloponnesian War in Ancient Greece

The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) stands as a seminal conflict in ancient Greek history, pitting the maritime power of Athens against the land-based might of Sparta. This article would, therefore, be intended to discuss the complex interplay of ever-changing alliances, along with the strategic motivations and overall balance of power characteristic of this long conflict.

Luke Rimmo Loyi Lego explains.

The destruction of the Athenian army at Syracuse. By John Steeple Davis.

 Introduction & Brief Background

The Peloponnesian War, which took place from 431 to 404 BCE, is in many ways exemplary of the very complex play of alliances, power dynamics, and strategic imperatives characterizing ancient Greece. First, it was a struggle expressing in its roots the very principles of structural realism that govern inter-state relations according to which, in an international system characterized by anarchy, only accumulation of power through forming alliances could reach security. To understand why war was almost an inevitable result, one has to look at the anarchic political landscape of the Greek city-state system. Unlike the centralized empires of Persia or Egypt, Greece was a fragmented collection of independent poleis, each with its own government, military, and strategic interests. There was no overriding authority to moderate disputes or impose order on this Greek world, making it an excellent example of what structural realism would identify as an anarchic international system.

Power, in this very decentralized system, became the final guarantor of security, whereas alliances were the mechanisms for survival—not instruments of collective peace. After the Persian Wars (499–449 BCE), two great powers with their respective coalitions began to look towards securing their respective interests. Athens, by its supremacy in naval affairs, transformed the voluntary defensive alliance against Persia into something of an Athenian-controlled empire through the Delian League. This centralization of power, allied with the use of tribute from allied states to fund its expansionist policies, caused resentment among the Greek city-states that had initially joined the league for mutual security.

On the other hand, Sparta, as the leader of the Peloponnesian League, led a coalition of land-based, conservative, oligarchic states opposed to Athenian imperial ambitions. Unlike the relatively open democratic society of Athens, Sparta was militarized and deeply invested in the maintenance of internal stability, especially given its dependence on an enslaved population of helots. Athenian interference in the affairs of Peloponnesian League members and its economic sanctions against key Spartan allies like Corinth and Megara fanned the flames of ill-will.

The structural realist perspective postulates that since Greece had no central authority, its system worked through the logic of self-help where no state could be completely secure about the intentions of another. This change in the balance of power, because of the rise of Athens, began to spur a security dilemma whereby both Athens and Sparta felt threatened by what each was doing for its own defense. The fear of encirclement by Athenian influence, and the anxiety in Athens over possible Spartan intervention in its empire, fed a cycle of hostilities. By the time war broke out in 431 BCE, diplomatic mechanisms had failed, and neither side was willing to give up strategic ground without risking a loss of prestige and power. The Peloponnesian War, then, was not a struggle of two ideologies—democracy versus oligarchy—but rather an structural necessity, given the logic of an anarchic system where competing hegemons cannot co-exist peacefully.

Alliances in the Peloponnesian War

Because of the Persian Wars, Greek city-states understood the need to develop alliances to safeguard themselves from future attacks. This gave birth to the Delian League and the Peloponnesian League.

The Delian League was created in 478 BCE, with an Athenian leadership base and was designed to be a coalition of states to continue fighting against Persia and free the Greek cities which, at that time, were under the Persian rule. Every free city-state trained sails or gave money to aid the league's primary aim of freeing the city-states and retrieving the ships. The league was based on the sacred island of Delos, so every city gave tribute. Gradually, the league shifted in aim when Athens assumed control and the resources aided imperial initiatives. Member states were thus used to enhance Athenian power.

The Peloponnesian League, headed by Sparta, was an alliance based on collective defense and the preservation of the order. In contrast with the formally established structures of the Delian League, the Peloponnesian League was less rigid, with Sparta taking political supremacy among its allies. Primarily, this coalition included the city-states from the Peloponnese region seeking to inhibit Athenian dominance and retain autonomy.

From a structural realist perspective, these alliances can thereby be viewed as strategic responses to the anarchic international system. Athens and Sparta, as principal actors, sought to enhance their security and project power through these coalitions, thereby attempting to mitigate the uncertainties inherent in a decentralized political landscape.

Motivations of Athens and Sparta

Although both city-states were substantially important in Greece, they were directed by motivations quite opposite to one another founded on the various political systems, economic structure, and attitudes of their citizenry.

Athens, being a burgeoning maritime power, wished to expand its influence and protect interests on the economic front. This ambition was exemplified firstly by the formation of the Delian League and then by its evolution into an Athenian Empire. A democratic-style government in the city advanced a culture of dynamic thinking and self-assertiveness that propelled the city toward the idea of empire. Control over critical sea routes and a network of trade was paramount in the suppression of dissent among its subordinate states. The Athenian leadership, under Pericles' authority, visualized Athenian supremacy both culturally and politically. Pericles' Funeral Oration, as presented in Thucydides' writings, praised the values of Athenian democracy, its imperial design, and is a reflection of a city-state quite confident in its destiny.  On the contrary, Sparta held itself back by conservatism, assuming immediate preservation of traditional interests and the preservation of an existing balance of power. The expansion of Athenian influence was perceived by Sparta as a shortcut to threaten Spartan hegemony and thus disrupt its pro-Allied alliance. The anxiety of encirclement and the potential weakening of the entire Peloponnesian League compelled the Spartans to contemplate going to war. Additionally, several speeches made in the Spartan Assembly by Thucydides gave light to incipient worries about the Athenians and how they could act if challenged. In brief, both states realized their choices as a deliberate action under the lens of a structural realist approach. Athens wanted to maximize its own power for the security of its state against economic threats.

War as a Balance of Power Mechanism

The Peloponnesian War may thus be interpreted, in a general sense, with the balance of power theory—a central tenet of structural realism. The balance of power theory posits that states will act to prevent any one actor from achieving hegemony, thereby maintaining an equilibrium that ensures their survival.

The rapid rise of Athens disturbed the previous balance and made it a bipolar system with two hegemonic powers. This change brought about a security dilemma where the defensive actions of one state were perceived as offensive threats by the other. In the eyes of Sparta, the fortifications and naval expansions of Athens were preparations for aggression, while for Athens, the mobilizations of Sparta were signals of an imminent invasion.

The proximate cause of the war was a dispute between Corinth and Corcyra, the intervention of Athens on behalf of Corcyra bringing about open hostilities between Athens and Corinth. The follow-up Athenian decree against Megara, better known as the Megarian Decree, acted as further aggrandizement. An ultimatum sent by Sparta to Athens, asking for the abrogation of the decree and the removal of economic sanctions on Megara, was brusquely refused. The failure of said diplomatic efforts finally led to the Spartan declaration of war in 431 BCE, and hence the long conflict started. The war that followed could therefore be an attempt on the part of Sparta and its allies to restore the balance of power by reining in the Athenian expansion and reasserting their own influence within the Greek world.

Security Dilemmas and the Escalation of Conflict

The Peloponnesian War is thus a stellar example of what would constitute a security dilemma: a state's actions to increase its own security decrease the security of others, which in turn leads to an escalatory dynamic.

To Sparta and her allies, such imperial policies by Athens—which included the enforcement of the Megarian Decree—came to be seen as direct threats to their economic and political interests. Equally, Athens viewed the mobilization of Sparta and her support for dissident elements within the Athenian empire as aggressive moves designed to destroy its authority.

This mutual suspicion and the lack of mechanisms to dispel the perceived threats led to an intensification of hostilities. The view from structural realism is that, in the absence of the Leviathan that characterizes the anarchic structure of the international system, there are no means for states but to resort to self-help. One of the important factors for the perpetuation of the war was the security dilemma in which both Athens and Sparta were trapped: neither could show weakness nor could either side give the other any strategic advantages.

The Role of Persia: Strategic Interventions and Realpolitik

Perhaps one of the most significant, yet sometimes underappreciated or simply not appreciated, aspects of the Peloponnesian War would be the role played by Persia. This war is generally remembered as a struggle among Greeks, but the Persian Empire did actively intervene in its course by choosing specific instances of intervention, giving financial aid to Sparta, and maneuvering diplomatically. In terms of the structural realist view, Persia's policy can be accounted for in that great powers play on the rivalries of emerging powers in a manner that allows them to conserve their influence without engaging in a frontal clash.

Thus, during the early years of the War, Persia kept mostly out of it, preferring to watch from the sidelines. But as the war dragged on and both Athens and Sparta began to suffer economic and military attrition, Persia saw its chance to reassert its authority over the Greek world, particularly in Ionia, which had been a contested region since the Persian Wars. The turning point came in the later years of the war when Sparta, realizing it could not hope to compete with Athens in terms of financial resources and naval power, turned to Persia for support.

In 412 BCE, Sparta negotiated the Treaty of Miletus with the Persian satrap Tissaphernes whereby Persia would provide financial aid to the Spartan fleet in return for Spartan recognition of Persian control over the Ionian cities—a classic realist strategy whereby states put survival and strategic advantage above ideological or historical scores. Sparta, though having fought on the side of Persia during the earlier Greco-Persian Wars, now joined its erstwhile enemy to conveniently help bring pressure on Athens—such intervention made all the difference.

This was possible only through the gold of Persia, which enabled Sparta to build a formidable navy and thereby ultimately conquer Athens at the Battle of Aegospotami in 405 BCE, in which the entire Athenian fleet was annihilated. This last blow led to the siege and surrender of Athens in 404 BCE. The ability of an exogenous actor, Persia, to manipulate and influence the war between the Greek city-states lends weight to the structural realist notion that weak states—here, Athens and Sparta relative to Persia—are always at the mercy of a stronger power's strategic calculations. Persia played Athens and Sparta rather perfectly against each other, making sure that none of them ever rose as an unrivaled hegemon in the Greek world.

Conclusion: A Structural Realist Interpretation of the Peloponnesian War

The Peloponnesian War was the inevitable consequence of the rise of Athens to pre-eminence that fundamentally disrupted the existing balance of the Greek world. According to structural realism—especially the variant offered by Kenneth Waltz and John Mearsheimer—the anarchic character of the international system compels states to seek power for survival, which entails conflict when a rising power challenges the dominance of an established hegemon. Sparta, the paramount land power, saw Athenian expansion as an existential threat to its very survival; it found itself in a security dilemma with the other great power, each escalating its military preparedness and making war all but inevitable. The war was not a matter of ideology but a structural necessity to restore equilibrium in the Greek world, proving the realist assertion that power struggles, rather than moral or ideological factors, dictate international relations.

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References

Bedford, David, and Thom Workman. "The Tragic Reading of the Thucydidean Tragedy." Review of International Studies 27 (2001): 51–67. © British International Studies Association.

Gilpin, Robert. War and Change in World Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.

Thucydides. The History of the Peloponnesian War. Translated by Richard Crawley. London: J.M. Dent; New York: E.P. Dutton, 1910.

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Korab-Karpowicz, W. Julian. "How International Relations Theories Explain the Peloponnesian War." Theoria: A Journal of Social and Political Theory 54, no. 113 (2007): 1–27.

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Kagan, Donald. "The Peloponnesian War and the Future of American Power." Foreign Affairs, February 2001. https://www.foreignaffairs.com

Themistocles: A Visionary Leader of Classical Athens

Themistocles (524–459 BCE), (Θεμιστοκλῆς (Themistoklēs)), is a name that resonates through history as one of the most influential political and military figures of Ancient Greece. Known for his astute political acumen and strategic brilliance, Themistocles helped shape the course of Greek and Western civilization, most notably through his pivotal role in the Persian Wars.

Terry Bailey explains.

Themistocles honored at Sparta.

Themistocles was prominent during the early 5th century BCE an era often referred to as the classical period or sometimes as the Golden Age of Greece.

This era is marked by significant developments in art, philosophy, architecture, drama, and politics. It was a time when city-states like Athens reached the height of their cultural and political influence, particularly under the leadership of figures like Pericles, (Περικλῆς (Periklēs)), and Themistocles.

During the golden age of ancient Athens, democracy flourished into a revolutionary political system that empowered its citizens. This transformative era also gave rise to philosophy, as towering figures such as Socrates laid the foundations for critical thinking and ethical inquiry. At the same time, Athens became a hub of artistic and architectural innovation, epitomized by the construction of iconic structures like the Parthenon. Advancements in sculpture and pottery reflected a society striving for excellence and beauty, with artisans achieving unprecedented levels of detail and realism.

Cultural achievements extended to drama and literature, as the works of playwrights such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides captivated audiences with their profound exploration of human experience. Meanwhile, Athens also faced significant challenges, including the Persian Wars—marked by pivotal battles like Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis—and the protracted Peloponnesian War against rival Sparta. These conflicts shaped the political and cultural trajectory of Athens, leaving an indelible legacy on Western civilization.

Early life of Themistocles

Born into a modest family in Athens, Themistocles' early life was marked by ambition and determination. Unlike many of his contemporaries, who hailed from aristocratic families, Themistocles relied on his sharp intellect and ability to navigate the intricate dynamics of Athenian politics. He demonstrated an early understanding of the importance of naval power, an insight that would later prove critical to Athens' survival and dominance.

Strengths of Themistocles

Themistocles stood as one of the most remarkable leaders of ancient Athens, his legacy defined by a combination of visionary strategy, political acumen, and military brilliance. Foreseeing the significance of naval power, he revolutionized Athenian defense by championing a strong fleet. His insight that Athens' geography lent itself to maritime dominance proved transformative, laying the foundation for the city's survival and eventual expansion. This strategic foresight culminated in his pivotal role during the Persian Wars, particularly at the Battle of Salamis, where his tactical ingenuity ensured a decisive victory that safeguarded Greece's independence.

Beyond the battlefield, Themistocles was a master of Athenian democracy. His skillful manipulation of alliances, public opinion, and rhetoric made him a commanding presence in the Assembly. Charismatic and persuasive, he rallied Athenians to invest in the very navy that would secure their future. This innovative leadership style not only inspired his contemporaries but also redefined Athens as a maritime powerhouse, setting the stage for its Golden Age. Themistocles' blend of strategic vision and political mastery cemented his place as one of history's most dynamic leaders.

Weaknesses of Themistocles

Despite his undeniable brilliance and monumental contributions to Athens, Themistocles was a deeply flawed figure whose personal traits ultimately led to his downfall. His relentless ambition, while instrumental in securing Athens' survival during the Persian Wars, often alienated his allies and fostered hostility among his peers. This drive for power and influence overshadowed his statesmanship, turning many once-ardent supporters into bitter rivals.

Themistocles' ethical lapses further undermined his reputation. Accusations of corruption and self-serving behavior dogged his career, with critics alleging that he manipulated situations for personal gain rather than prioritizing the greater good of Athens. His arrogance only deepened the resentment, as his growing hubris left little room for compromise, particularly among the aristocracy and political rivals. Later in life, his pragmatic dealings with Persia alienated him entirely from Greek society, casting him as a traitor in the eyes of his countrymen. These missteps, combined with his overreaching ambition, ultimately eclipsed his achievements, leaving behind a legacy as polarizing as it was remarkable.

Political achievements

As one of Athens' most visionary leaders and the architect of its maritime supremacy. Themistocles at a pivotal moment in Athenian history proposed using the wealth from newly discovered silver mines at Laurium not for personal gain but for the construction of a formidable naval fleet.

Rejecting the idea of distributing the silver among citizens, Themistocles championed the building of triremes—sleek, fast warships that became the backbone of Athenian naval defense and future expansion. This bold decision transformed Athens into a naval superpower, enabling it to dominate the Aegean and secure its place as a leader among Greek city-states. The fleet not only protected Athens but also laid the foundation for the Delian League, a stepping stone to the city's imperial aspirations.

Beyond his naval innovations, Themistocles left a profound impact on Athenian society and infrastructure. He championed democratic reforms that curtailed the influence of aristocrats and amplified the political and military roles of ordinary citizens, fostering a more inclusive society. Recognizing the need for strategic urban planning, he fortified Athens and spearheaded the construction of the Piraeus harbor.

This sprawling port evolved into a bustling hub of trade and military power, ensuring Athens' economic prosperity and securing its strategic dominance in the Mediterranean. Through his multifaceted vision, Themistocles transformed Athens into a thriving, resilient city-state capable of withstanding the challenges of its turbulent era.

Military achievements

The Battle of Marathon (490 BCE)

Although Themistocles was not the commander at the Battle of Marathon he did fight in this decisive battle against the Persians. The victory solidified his belief in the importance of military and naval preparedness and guided the way for future victories.

The Battle of Salamis (480 BCE)

Themistocles' crowning achievement was his leadership during the Battle of Salamis. Facing overwhelming Persian forces led by King Xerxes, Themistocles devised a cunning strategy to lure the Persian fleet into the narrow straits of Salamis. The confined space neutralized the numerical superiority of the Persians, allowing the Greek triremes to achieve a decisive victory. This battle effectively saved Greece from Persian domination and marked a turning point in Western history.

Cultural and political legacy in Athens

Themistocles' emphasis on naval power laid the foundation for the Athenian Empire and its Golden Age. The naval dominance he established enabled Athens to become a hub of art, philosophy, and democracy.

The strategies of Themistocles thwarted the Persian ambitions ensuring the survival of Greek culture, which later influenced Roman civilization and, subsequently, Western thought. The Greek ideals of democracy, individualism, and freedom owe much to the Athenian resilience during the Persian Wars.

Inspiration for leadership and strategy

Themistocles' life and strategies have inspired military leaders and political thinkers throughout history. His ability to adapt and innovate in the face of challenges remains a model of effective leadership.

Despite his monumental contributions, Themistocles' later years were marked by misfortune. Political rivals, jealous of his achievements, accused him of corruption and conspiring with Persia. Ostracized from Athens, he sought refuge in the Persian court of King Artaxerxes I, where he served as a governor in Asia Minor. While some view this as a betrayal, others argue it reflects his pragmatic approach to survival and diplomacy.

Themistocles' long-term influence on humanity lies in his demonstration of how individual vision and determination can alter the course of history. His contributions to the survival and flourishing of Athens paved the way for the cultural and intellectual achievements of Classical Greece, which continue to shape modern thought. His life also serves as a cautionary tale about the perils of unchecked ambition and the fragility of political success.

In conclusion, Themistocles was a giant concerning the transformative power of vision, intellect, and strategic brilliance. His role in safeguarding Athens and Greek cultural independence during the Persian Wars, particularly through his masterful leadership at the Battle of Salamis, not only preserved the cultural and political fabric of Classical Greece but also ensured the survival of ideals that continue to underpin Western civilization.

Through the championing of naval power and democratic reforms, Themistocles laid the groundwork for Athens' ascendancy as a cultural and intellectual beacon throughout the Golden Age of Ancient Greece. However, his life also underscores the complexities of leadership. His remarkable achievements were matched by personal flaws—his over-ambition, pragmatism, and willingness to alienate allies ultimately led to his exile.

Yet, even in his downfall, Themistocles demonstrated adaptability, serving Persia with the same strategic acumen that once made him the savior of Athens.

The story of Themistocles is one of contrast, a leader who rose from modest beginnings to unparalleled influence, only to face the inevitable consequences of hubris and political rivalry. His enduring impact reminds us that the actions of a single individual, armed with vision and determination, can alter the trajectory of history, leaving a legacy that inspires both admiration and reflection.

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Notes:

One of the most influential aspects of the Classical Greek era is democracy, however, democracy looked very different in Ancient Athens compared to today's democratic system even though today's system of democracy finds its roots in classical Greece.

The word democracy originates from the Greek term δημοκρατία (dēmokratía), which is a combination of δῆμος (dēmos), meaning people or citizens and κράτος (Kratos), meaning power or rule.

Therefore, δημοκρατία translates to rule by the people which describes a system of governance, where eligible citizens participate directly in decision-making processes.

As indicated Ancient Greek democracy was distinct from modern representative democracy, as it emphasized direct participation, with citizens voting on laws and policies themselves, rather than electing representatives to do so.

Trireme

A trireme was an ancient warship that played a central role in the naval dominance of Mediterranean powers such as Greece, Phoenicia, and Rome from the 7th to the 4th centuries BCE. Its name derives from the Greek tríērēs (τριήρης), a combination of Tri- (τρῐ-): meaning three and -ērēs (ῆρης): relating to rows or levels of oars, later Latinized triremis, meaning (three-rower), as indicated refers to the arrangement of oars-men in three vertically stacked tiers on each side of the vessel.

Triremes were designed for speed, agility, and effectiveness in naval combat, featuring a slim, elongated hull typically made of lightweight wood such as pine or cedar, (usually Lebanese cedar). This design minimized water resistance and allowed the ship to achieve remarkable speeds, often reaching around 8 knots under the power of oars and even more with a sail.

Triremes were equipped with a prominent bronze-plated ram at the bow, used to strike and disable enemy ships by puncturing their hulls. They also carried a crew of approximately 200 men, including at least 170 rowers, a handful of sailors, and marines for boarding actions. Despite their reliance on human-powered oars, triremes also utilized a single square sail for travelling longer distances.

The strategic use of these vessels was evident in pivotal naval battles like Salamis in 480 BCE, as outlined in the main text with the Athenian navy's superior trireme fleet defeating the Persian larger armada. The trireme's innovative design and tactical versatility made it a cornerstone of ancient naval warfare, shaping the outcomes of major conflicts and the dominance of seafaring civilizations.

Point of interest:

The Greek language holds a foundational role in shaping modern European languages, serving as a linguistic bridge from antiquity to contemporary times. Ancient Greek, particularly Classical and Koine Greek, has significantly influenced the lexicons, grammatical structures, and conceptual frameworks of many European languages, especially the Romance, Germanic, and Slavic families.

Terms related to philosophy, science, medicine, and the arts often derive from Greek roots. For instance, words like "philosophy" (from philos meaning love, and sophia meaning wisdom) and as already indicated "democracy" (from demos meaning people, and kratos meaning power) reflect the descriptive richness of Greek as a source of abstract and technical vocabulary. This influence became widespread through the Roman Empire, which adopted many Greek terms into Latin, the progenitor of the Romance languages.

One of the reasons the Greek language has had such an enduring impact is its modular and descriptive nature. The language constructs meaning through the combination of roots, prefixes, and suffixes, allowing for the creation of precise terms to describe new concepts. This modularity made the Greek language particularly adept at expressing scientific and philosophical ideas, as its components could be rearranged and adapted to articulate complex phenomena.

For example, modern scientific terminology, such as "microbiology" (mikros meaning small, bios meaning life, and logos meaning study), demonstrates this adaptability. This descriptive precision not only provided a linguistic template for technical and scholarly disciplines but also enriched the languages of Europe, creating a shared intellectual heritage that continues to shape the modern world. This influence is primarily due to the Golden Age of Classical Greece.

Archimedes: Greek Genius of the Ancient World

Archimedes of Syracuse, one of the greatest mathematicians and inventors of antiquity, profoundly influenced fields ranging from geometry to hydrostatics. Born in 287 BCE in Syracuse, a Greek city-state on the island of Sicily, Archimedes lived during a period of scientific discovery and political turbulence. His contributions not only advanced the knowledge of his time but also laid the foundations for future innovations, impacting fields as diverse as engineering, physics, and military strategy.

Terry Bailey explains.

Portrait of a scholar (Archimedes?). Domenico Fetti, 1620.

Early life and education

Archimedes was born into a family connected to the ruling elite of Syracuse. In his work 'The Sand-Reckoner', Archimedes gives his father's name as Phidias, an astronomer about whom nothing else is known, it is assumed this is what likely sparked Archimedes' early interest in the sciences. Little is known about Archimedes' early years, but it is believed he travelled to Alexandria in Egypt, the intellectual hub of the Mediterranean world, to study under the successors of Euclid. This connection with Alexandria placed Archimedes within the vibrant mathematical community of his time.

Upon returning to Syracuse, Archimedes dedicated himself to a life of inquiry and discovery. His surviving written work indicates a keen desire to explore both the abstract principles of mathematics and their practical applications. He had a deep love for pure mathematics but was equally committed to solving real-world problems.

Mathematical contribution

Archimedes' work in mathematics established him as a towering figure in the discipline. One of his most celebrated achievements is the approximation of pi (π). Archimedes developed a method of calculating the value of π by inscribing and circumscribing polygons around a circle, finding their perimeters and using this data to estimate π with remarkable precision. His method, known as the method of exhaustion, is considered an early form of integral calculus and remained the most accurate approximation of π until modern times.

Another significant contribution is Archimedes' principle of the lever. In his treatise 'On the Equilibrium of Planes', Archimedes laid down the laws governing levers and balance. His famous statement, "Give me a place to stand, and a lever long enough, and I will move the Earth, (World)," captures the essence of his discovery that a small force, applied correctly using a lever, can move large objects. This principle revolutionized mechanics and influenced engineering practices for centuries.

Archimedes also made strides in understanding the concept of centroids in geometry. In his work, 'On the Quadrature of the Parabola', he calculated the area of a parabolic segment and demonstrated that the centroid of a parabola lies along its axis. His ability to combine abstract reasoning with physical insight was unparalleled in the ancient world.

Hydrostatics and the principle of buoyancy

Archimedes is perhaps best known for his work in hydrostatics, particularly his discovery of the principle of buoyancy. This principle states that any object immersed in a fluid experiences an upward force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. The story of Archimedes' Eureka, (Greek: εὕρηκα, I have found), moment is legendary, even if not exactly what occurred.

King Hiero II of Syracuse asked Archimedes to determine whether a crown made for him was pure gold or adulterated with silver. While bathing, Archimedes realized that the water displaced by his body in the bath provided a way to measure the volume of the crown and thus its density. Leaping from his bath in excitement, Archimedes is said to have run through the streets shouting Eureka!, I have found it!

Archimedes' principle of buoyancy became a cornerstone of fluid mechanics, underpinning theories of flotation and sinking. This discovery had practical applications in shipbuilding, as it allowed engineers to calculate whether ships would float based on their weight and the water they displaced.

Inventions and engineering feats

Archimedes' inventive genius was not limited to theoretical work; he also designed practical machines that were ahead of their time. One of his most famous inventions is the Archimedean screw, a device used to raise water. The screw consists of a helical surface inside a cylinder, and when turned, it would lift water from a lower to a higher elevation. Originally designed for irrigation in Egypt, the Archimedean screw is still used today in some parts of the world for pumping water.

In the realm of warfare, Archimedes applied his knowledge of mechanics to develop powerful machines that helped defend Syracuse during the Second Punic War. His military devices were so effective that they became the stuff of legend. Among these were massive catapults capable of hurling projectiles at enemy ships, and large cranes or "claws" that could grab ships, lift them out of the water, and then smash them back down, sinking them. Another invention, known as the Archimedes' heat ray, allegedly used mirrors to focus sunlight onto Roman ships, setting them on fire. While the historical accuracy of the heat ray remains debated, it highlights the blend of scientific theory and military necessity in Archimedes' work.

The method of mechanical theorems

One of Archimedes' lesser-known yet most significant contributions to mathematics is the method of mechanical theorems, detailed in his work of the same name. In this treatise, Archimedes explored the use of mechanical reasoning to discover mathematical theorems. By imagining geometric figures as physical bodies with weight, he was able to "balance" them and deduce geometric relationships. This approach was revolutionary because it introduced an early form of integral calculus long before Newton and Leibniz developed the field in the 17th century.

Archimedes' spiral—a curve traced by a point moving uniformly away from a central point while the point revolves around that point—was another breakthrough. He used this spiral to square the circle, showing that the area under one turn of the spiral was equal to a quarter of a circle's area. His work on spirals remains relevant in modern mathematics, particularly in polar coordinate systems.

The Sand Reckoner, challenging the size of the universe

Archimedes' curiosity extended beyond the Earth and into the cosmos. In his treatise 'The Sand Reckoner', he set out to determine whether it was possible to calculate the number of grains of sand that could fill the known universe. While this might seem like a trivial exercise, Archimedes used it as a way to propose a new system for expressing large numbers, challenging the conventional Greek numeral system. His estimate pushed the boundaries of ancient cosmology and provided a method for handling astronomical magnitudes, illustrating his unique ability to connect mathematics with natural philosophy.

Archimedes' death and legacy

The legacy of Archimedes is indelibly tied to his tragic death during the Siege of Syracuse in 212 BCE. The Romans, led by General Marcus Claudius Marcellus, laid siege to the city, and Archimedes played a critical role in designing machines that delayed the Roman advance. According to Plutarch, Archimedes was so engrossed in his work during the siege that he was oblivious to the Roman army entering the city. A Roman soldier found Archimedes working on a mathematical problem, allegedly Archimedes responded, "Do not disturb my circles," referring to the geometric figures he was drawing in the sand, the soldier, either misunderstood or ignored the orders, killing Archimedes on the spot, despite orders from Marcellus that Archimedes was to be spared.

Archimedes' contributions to science and engineering left an enduring legacy. His surviving works were studied, copied, and transmitted through the centuries, influencing Islamic scholars in the medieval period and later the European Renaissance. His method of approximation and mechanical theorems paved the way for the development of modern calculus, while his inventions demonstrated the power of applied science. Archimedes' influence can be seen in the works of later astronomers and mathematicians such as Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, and even physicists mathematicians and engineers of today.

Rediscovery of Archimedes' works

Many of Archimedes' original writings were lost over time, but his ideas and concepts survived through Latin and Arabic translations. One of the most exciting discoveries related to Archimedes' work came in 1906 when the Archimedes Palimpsest was uncovered. This medieval manuscript contained previously unknown works by Archimedes, including The Method of Mechanical Theorems. The palimpsest was produced when monks in the 13th century scraped off the original Archimedean text and reused the parchment for religious writings. Modern technology has allowed scholars to recover the erased text, providing new insight into Archimedes' mathematical genius.

Archimedes stands as a beacon of human ingenuity and intellectual curiosity. His profound insight into mathematics, physics, mechanics, and applied science such as hydrostatics continues to resonate today, demonstrating how a single individual's quest for knowledge can shape the course of human history.

From his invention of the Archimedean screw to his principles of levers and buoyancy, Archimedes' achievements spanned both theoretical brilliance and practical applications. His life and work exemplify the synergy between scientific inquiry and the real-world problems that science seeks to solve, making him one of the most remarkable figures of the ancient world.

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Notes:

Surviving writing of Archimedes:

·       Measurement of a Circle

·       The Sand Reckoner

·       On the Equilibrium of Planes

·       Quadrature of the Parabola

·       On the Sphere and Cylinder

·       On Spirals

·       On Conoids and Spheroids

·       On Floating Bodies

·       Ostomachion, (Loculus of Archimedes or Archimedes' Box)

·       The cattle problem

·       The Method of Mechanical Theorems

·       Book of Lemmas or Liber Assumptorum is a treatise with 15 propositions on the nature of circles

·       Archimedes' Palimpsest described above includes treatises:-

·       On the Equilibrium of Planes

·       On Spirals

·       Measurement of a Circle

·       On the Sphere and Cylinder

·       On Floating Bodies

·       The Method of Mechanical Theorems

·       Stomach-ion

·       Speeches by the 4th century BC politician Hypereides

·       A Commentary on Aristotle's Categories

·       Associated other works

Euclid

Euclid (Εὐκλείδης) was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the "father of geometry." He lived around 300 BCE, during the reign of Ptolemy I in Alexandria. His most famous work, Elements, is a comprehensive compilation of the mathematical knowledge of his time and became the foundational text for geometry for centuries.

Elements consist of 13 books covering geometry, number theory, and mathematical logic. Euclid also contributed to optics, astronomy, and the study of conic sections. His work laid the groundwork for deductive reasoning in mathematics, a method still used today.

Hero of Alexandria: The Father of Automation

If you thought automation and robotics are a modern development, then you could not be further from the truth. Hero (Ηρων) of Alexandria (sometimes referred to as Heron) is often hailed as one of antiquity's greatest engineers and inventors who was a monumental figure in the history of science and technology of the ancient world. His contributions to mechanical engineering, mathematics, robotics and automation continue to resonate, influencing the development of various technologies that are still relevant today.

Living in the 1st century CE, Hero is best remembered for his ingenious devices, many of which were powered by water, air pressure, and steam—pioneering innovations that made him the father of automation.

Terry Bailey explains.

An illustration of Hero’s aeolipile.

Life of Hero of Alexandria

Hero's precise dates of birth and death are not well-documented, but he is thought to have lived in the Roman province of Egypt during the 1st century CE, possibly under the rule of emperor Vespasian. Alexandria, the city where he resided and worked, was a vibrant intellectual hub, home to the famous Library of Alexandria and many scholars. Hero likely studied and worked at the Museion, (Museum), (μουσείο), of Alexandria, an institution that supported scientific research and housed many of the era's most important intellectuals.

Little is known about Hero's personal life, as much of the biographical data about him has been lost over the centuries. What is clear, however, is his status as a polymath. Making significant contributions to the fields of mathematics, physics, and engineering, and his works were highly regarded by scholars in both his time and during the Renaissance. His influence extended beyond the Greco-Roman world, impacting Islamic scholars who preserved many of his writings and eventually the European world.

Hero's Inventions

Hero's inventive genius is best demonstrated through his numerous mechanical devices. He designed automated machines powered by water, air, and steam that performed tasks automatically without human intervention. These inventions ranged from toys and gadgets to practical devices, many were seen as marvels of engineering during his time.

Some of his most significant inventions include:

1. Aeolipile (Hero's Engine)

Hero's most famous invention is the aeolipile, which is often considered the earliest recorded example of a simply steam-driven device. The aeolipile consisted of a spherical vessel mounted on a set of bearings. Attached to the sphere were two bent nozzles. When the vessel was heated, water inside it turned to steam, which was forced out of the nozzles, causing the sphere to spin. While the device was not used for practical purposes, it demonstrated the potential of steam power and laid the groundwork for his later developments in engine technology.

2. The Automatic Temple Doors

The ingeniously designed system developed by Hero to open and close temple doors using the same principles of steam power that Hero discovered on his Aeolipile was a marvel. In this device, the fire would be lit on an altar, heating water. The steam produced would flow into a container, causing it to displace air or liquid into a system of counterweights, which in turn moved the temple doors. This dramatic use of automation not only impressed worshippers but also showcased the mechanical principles Hero was developing and his ability to utilize steam.

3. Vending Machine

Long before modern convenience stores and vending machines, Hero designed what is often considered the world's first vending machine. His machine dispensed water when a coin was inserted. The coin would land on a lever that opened a valve, allowing a set amount of water to pour out. Once the coin slid off the lever, the valve would close. This was a prime example of Hero's knack for designing automated systems that performed repetitive tasks efficiently.

4. The Programmable Cart

The development of a programmable cart, which could be pre-set to follow a specific course was groundbreaking. The cart was powered by a falling weight, and strings attached to the wheels that controlled its direction. By adjusting the length of the strings, Hero was able to "program" the cart to move in a particular pattern. This early form of automation and programming revealed a very forward-thinking approach to engineering.

5. Hydraulis (Water Organ)

One of Hero's mechanical masterpieces was the hydraulis, an early form of a pipe organ that used water pressure to produce sound. The device utilized air pushed through pipes by water that produced music that was both automated and regulated. It is widely considered one of the earliest known musical instruments that combined mechanics with artistry, in addition to, basic mechanical programming. Needless to say, it is from this we derive the modern word hydraulics, (from Ancient Greek ὕδωρ (húdōr) 'water' and αὐλός (aulós) 'pipe)

6. Automata and Theatrical Devices

It was his fascination with automata, or self-operating machines, that offered him an opportunity to produce fully automated theatre shows complete with theatrical settings. He designed mechanical birds that could sing and even designed a miniature theatre complete with figures that moved automatically. These inventions were primarily used for entertainment, but they also highlighted Hero's understanding of pneumatics and robotics. His automata amazed audiences and further demonstrated his mastery of mechanical engineering.

Greatest Achievements and Legacy

Hero's inventions were undoubtedly revolutionary, but perhaps his greatest achievement lies in his ability to document and share his knowledge. The writings of his work have survived the ages, offering a wealth of information about the scientific and technological advancements of his time. Some of his most important works include Pneumatica, Automatopoietica, Mechanica, and Metrica. These texts not only describe his inventions but also delve into the principles of mathematics, geometry, and physics that underpinned his work.

1. Pneumatica

The treatise Pneumatica is one of his most famous works, where Hero describes a variety of machines that operated on the principles of air pressure and hydraulics. This includes devices like the aeolipile, the automatic temple doors, and various fountains. Pneumatica is a treasure trove of early engineering, showing how Hero applied scientific principles to everyday life, from temples to theatres.

2. Automatopoietica

In Automatopoietica, the focus was on automata and robotics. In this work he explained the mechanics behind self-operating devices, offering insight into how machines could perform tasks automatically. This work is an early exploration of robotics, showing that the concept of automating tasks was already being considered in ancient times.

3. Mechanica

The Mechanica explored the fundamental principles of mechanics, such as levers, pulleys, and gears. This work reveals the underlying principles of his inventions and shows Hero's broad understanding of mechanical forces. In Mechanica, he also delves into architectural engineering, explaining how large structures like temples and catapults could be constructed using mechanical systems.

4. Metrica

In Metrica, Hero turned his attention to mathematics and particularly geometry. This work is significant because it compiled various mathematical formulas and theorems that could be applied to practical engineering problems. Metrica includes formulas for calculating the area and volume of different shapes, as well as methods for measuring distances and determining the size of objects. This blend of theoretical mathematics and applied science helped bridge the gap between abstract geometry and practical engineering.

Influence and Impact

Although much of Hero's work was ignored during the Middle Ages, it was rediscovered by Islamic scholars and engineers during the Islamic Golden Age. His works were translated into Arabic and studied by thinkers like Al-Jazari, who expanded upon Hero's concepts. Later, during the Renaissance, Hero's writings became widely available in Europe, and his engineering principles were further developed by scientists and inventors such as Leonardo da Vinci.

Hero's greatest legacy is his role as a pioneer of automation. His inventions demonstrate that the idea of machines performing tasks independently of human intervention is not a modern one but dates back thousands of years. His inventions particularly the aeolipile, foreshadowed the Industrial Revolution, where steam engines became a driving force of change. Hero's work serves as evidence of the innovative spirit of the ancient world and continues to inspire engineers and inventors to this day.

In conclusion, Hero of Alexandria was a visionary whose work laid the foundations for automation and mechanical engineering. His life and inventions are remarkable examples of ancient ingenuity, and his influence extends far beyond his era. From the aeolipile to automata, Hero's devices were centuries ahead of their time, demonstrating a deep understanding of physics, mechanics, and mathematics. His writings and inventions not only entertained and served practical purposes in his time but also shaped the future of technology. As the father of automation, Hero's legacy endures, reminding us of the incredible potential for human innovation and development that ancient cultures provided humankind.

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Notes:

Automation

The word automaton is derived from the Ancient Greek automaton (αὐτόματον), which means "acting of one's own will". It was first used by Homer to describe an automatic door opening or automatic movement of wheeled tripods.

Robotics

We derive the term robotics from the Czech word robota meaning 'forced labor'. It was used for the first time, 100 years ago, in a play by the author of the same nationality, Karel Capek.

The full term robotics was first used by American science fiction author Isaac Asimov in 1941 from robot +‎ -ics by comparison to "physics ... hydraulics, celestial mechanics, and so on" in his short story Liar

Mechanics

The word Mechanics is derived from Ancient Greek: μηχανική, mēkhanikḗ, lit. 'of machines', is the area of physics concerned with the relationships between force, matter, and motion among physical objects.

Pneumatics

We derive the word Pneumatics from the Ancient Greek πνεῦμα pneuma' wind, breath and related to the use of gas or pressurized air in mechanical systems.

What is the History of the Ancient Olympic Games?

The ancient Olympic games were originally a one-day event and the first recorded event was in 776 BCE; however, in 684 BCE, the games were extended to three days, then later to five days. The games were held every four years and are among the most celebrated traditions of ancient Greece.

Terry Bailey explains.

A depiction of the ivory and gold statue of Zeus.

The ancient Olympic games were not merely athletic contests but a festival that honored the Greek god Zeus, (Ζεύς). Through their duration and influence, the Olympics became a cornerstone of Greek culture, fostering unity, showcasing physical prowess, and celebration. In Greek mythology, it is said that Heracles, (Ἡρακλῆς), (Latin, Hercules), the son of Zeus and the mortal woman Alcmene was the founder of the Olympic games.

The ancient Olympics were held in Olympia, (Ὀλυμπία), a sanctuary site in western Peloponnese, a site that honored Zeus, who was the god of the sky and thunder and who ruled as king of the gods on Mount Olympus, (Όλυμπος). The sanctuary housed the magnificent ivory and gold statue of Zeus, designed and created by the sculptor Phidias, (Φειδίας), 480 – 430 BCE. The statue of Zeus was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and served as the central location for these games. The games' religious significance was profound, with numerous rituals and sacrifices performed to seek Zeus's favor and blessing.

Events

The Olympic Games began as a single race, the stade race, (Stadion), a sprint covering roughly 192 meters, (in today's unit of measurement), over time the games expanded to include a variety of events:

Stadion: The original footrace, covering one length of the stadium, approximately 192 meters and the precursor to the modern 200-metre race

Diaulos: A double stade race, twice that of the stadion and the precursor to the modern 400-metre race

Dolichos: A long-distance race, varying from 7 to 24 stades.

Hoplite Race: A race in armor, simulating military readiness.

Pentathlon: A five-event competition including a discus throw, javelin throw, long jump, stadion, and wrestling.

Side note: Athletes when jumping utilized a stone as a weight called halteres to increase the distance of a jump. They held onto the weights until the end of their flight and then jettisoned it backwards. Whereas, the discus was originally made of stone then later it was made of bronze. The technique was very similar to today's freestyle discus throw.

Wrestling (Pale): A grappling event where the objective was to throw the opponent to the ground. This was highly valued as a form of military exercise without weapons. It ended only when one of the contestants admitted defeat.

Boxing (Pyx): Boxers wrapped straps (himantes) around their hands to strengthen their wrists and steady their fingers. Initially, these straps were soft but as time progressed, boxers started using hard leather straps, often causing disfigurement of their opponent's face. Later the Romans adopted boxing into their gladiatorial games, however, in the Roman version the leather straps often had metal studs attached.

Pankration: A no-holds-barred contest combining wrestling and boxing. This was a primitive form of martial arts combining wrestling and boxing and was considered to be one of the toughest sports. Greeks believed that it was founded by Theseus when he defeated the fierce Minotaur in the labyrinth.

Equestrian Events: Including chariot racing and horse racing, held in the hippodromos, (ἱππόδρομος), Latinized to hippodrome from hippos, (ἵππος, horse) and dromos, (δρόμος, road/course), hence race course, race track.

These events tested the athletes' strength, speed, endurance, and skill, reflecting the Greek ideal of athletic excellence. Winning an event at the Olympics brought immense honor and fame, however, it should be noted, unlike the modern games each event had only one victor with no silver or bronze-placed athletes.

Victors, known as Olympionikes, received a wreath made of wild olive leaves, known as a kotinos, from the sacred olive tree near Zeus's temple. Beyond this symbolic prize, winners were often celebrated as heroes in their hometowns and received numerous amphorae of olive oil a very valuable commodity at the time.

Additionally, their hometown often honored the winners with other substantial material rewards, such as money, meals at public expense, or even the erection of a statue in their honor. Poets like Pindar would compose odes celebrating their victories, ensuring their names were immortalized.

Major athletic festivals

However, the Olympics were just part of the larger cycle of Panhellenic Games, which included three other major athletic festivals:

·       The Pythian Games were established in 582 BCE and held in Delphi in honor of Apollo, the god of music, arts, and prophecy. These games included musical and artistic competitions alongside athletic events. Victors received a laurel wreath, symbolizing Apollo's sacred tree.

·       The Nemean Games were established at the sanctuary of Zeus in Nemea in 573 BCE, and dedicated to Zeus. These Games were held every other year, (2nd and 4th year), in the same years that the Isthmian Games are held and were similar to the Olympics, these games included various athletic contests. Winners were crowned with a wreath of wild celery.

·       Isthmian Games, were established near Corinth in 582 BCE the same year as the Pythian Games began in Delphi. They were also held every 2nd and 4th year, like the Nemean Games, but in the spring. These games were held in honor of Poseidon, (Ποσειδῶν), who presided over the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses, and featured athletic and musical competitions, with victors receiving a wreath of pine leaves, later replaced by a wreath of dried celery.

Each of these games shared the common goal of celebrating athletic excellence and honoring the gods, but they also played a crucial role in fostering unity among the often-fragmented Greek city-states.

Conclusion

The ancient Olympic Games continued for nearly 12 centuries until they were suppressed in the late 4th century CE by Emperor Theodosius I, who sought to impose Christianity and suppress pagan traditions. Despite their cessation, the spirit of the ancient Olympics lived on, inspiring the modern Olympic movement that began in 1896.

In conclusion, the ancient Olympic Games were a remarkable fusion of sports, religion, and culture. The games honored Zeus and celebrated human excellence, leaving an indelible mark on history. Alongside other Panhellenic festivals, they exemplified the Greek commitment to both physical prowess and divine reverence, creating a legacy that endures to this day.

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Point of interest

The 26.2-mile marathon of today's Olympics can trace its origins back to ancient times, in addition to, the 1908 Olympics.

The modern marathon's distance of 26.2 miles (42.195 kilometers) has its origins in both ancient and modern history. The marathon race commemorates the legendary run of Pheidippides, an ancient Greek messenger who, according to legend ran across the mountain track in full armor from the battlefield of Marathon to Athens in 490 BCE to announce the Greek victory over the Persians. Upon delivering his message, νικῶμεν (nikomen, (We win)), Pheidippides is said to have collapsed and died. It is from the Greek word for (win/victory), that the famous running shoe brand found its name, (Nike).

Originally, the marathon distance was approximately 24.85 miles (40 kilometers), reflecting the distance from Marathon to Athens. However, the distance was standardized at 26.2 miles during the 1908 London Olympics. This change occurred because the course was extended to allow the race to start at Windsor Castle and finish in front of the Royal Box at the Olympic Stadium, making the distance exactly 26 miles and 385 yards, (26.2 miles).

Therefore, the marathon race is named after the Battle of Marathon, a crucial conflict in ancient Greek history. Characters like Pheidippides became symbolic of endurance and heroism, embodying the spirit of the event, which has since evolved into a cornerstone of modern athletic competition.

For the Love of Speech – The Art of Rhetoric in Ancient Greece

As Gandalf tells us in The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, "Perilous to us all are the devices of an art which we do not possess ourselves." Of course, Gandalf is talking about a dangerous, magical object that can communicate across space and time: a palantír stone. But the message rings true, too, about the powers of language and writing, which--like a palantír stone--can also traverse boundaries of space and time. Step into a library and you might have dialogues with thousands of the dead. 

Some of history's most dangerous and destabilizing figures were masters of the art of speech. They possessed great oratorical skills, but were devoid of a greater sense of ethics. In Plato's reckoning, a true rhetorician must unite their art of speech with philosophy. After all, if we do not possess ourselves a sense of how language can persuade us and work us over, then we will be all the more susceptible to those who might wield rhetoric against us. 

In the following excerpt, Dr. Daniel Lawrence (author of a recent book here: Amazon US | Amazon UK) goes back to the world of the ancient Greeks, where one's ability to speak well could literally be a matter of life and death. It's no wonder, given these circumstances, that an art of persuasion and various theories of language and perception emerged. Yet, as many rhetorical scholars have now documented, many different people at many different times and places developed arts and theories of writing and speech: the ancient Egyptians, the ancient Chinese, and various Indigenous peoples across the world. Wherever there is writing, language, and technology, there seems to emerge a human critique of its power. The author believes this rich tradition of critique--this art of rhetoric--is precisely what we need more of in our world today to help combat the growing dangers of digital disinformation and the unsettling, persuasive abilities of artificial intelligence. 

Oratorical skills are referenced in Homer’s Iliad. Above picture: Iliad, Book VIII, lines 245–253.

The ancient Greeks loved speeches. In the beginning of Phaedrus, one of my favorite dialogues by Plato, the titular character Phaedrus tells Socrates that he has just returned from a morning of making speeches with his friend Lysias. This would seem to be a rather funny thing in today’s world: to meet a friend for lunch, ask them how they spent their morning, and be told, “Oh, I was just over at Jane’s apartment. We were making speeches all morning.” Though this would not be a common occurrence today, the art of making speeches was close to the heart of ancient Greek culture. In a world where writing was a relatively new technology, writing tools and materials were expensive, and there was a reliance on oral tradition. Thus, speechmaking was a valued pastime. In many ways, this same desire for communication and storytelling is now fed by our media addictions: television, YouTube, film, podcasts, or binging a Netflix series. We don’t want to dismiss the important differences in our cultures, but we also shouldn’t forget just how similar humans can be across time and space.

Not all fun

But rhetoric wasn’t all fun, games, and entertainment for the ancient Greeks. The renowned classicist and scholar of rhetoric, George Kennedy, explains in his seminal A New History of Classical Rhetoric that this fascination with speeches was at least partially due to the vital, life-saving necessity of wielding language persuasively. Because there was no regular system of legal representation in ancient Greece, citizens would often be required to defend themselves in a court of law or to lay out their case against an opponent. In these early days of democratic society, your ability to speak could literally be a matter of life or death. If your neighbor accused you of stealing their goat—or worse, their horse—then you better have been able to make a compelling argument about why it wasn’t possible that you stole it as you proved your innocence. Perhaps you would make an appeal to ethos—that is, your character and credibility—and say, “I am an honest and law-abiding citizen of Athens. How could a person like me commit such a crime?” Perhaps you would make an appeal to pathos—that is, the emotions of your listeners—by pleading, “I am a father of five children and must work hard to provide for them. Would you rob these children of their father by imprisoning me based on the false claims of this greedy accuser?” Or perhaps you would appeal to the logos (or logic) of the audience and claim, “I was all day yesterday at the Theatre of Dionysus, a fact to which many of my fellow citizens can attest. How could I have been in two places at once?”

Today, we don’t take language seriously enough. The rhetorician Lloyd Bitzer wrote in his oft-cited essay (and bane of disinterested undergraduate students everywhere) “The Rhetorical Situation” that “rhetoric is a mode of altering reality,” not by physically moving material objects around, but by “the creation of discourse which changes reality through the mediation of thought and action.” This is just an academic way of saying that speech and language can literally change the way we perceive the world, the way we think, and the way we act. And certainly, we know this to be the case. We might hear a powerful sermon and be swayed into a life of service to a god, or we might see a compelling video advertisement which, even imperceptibly or insensibly, cements an idea in our mind of which make and model of automobile we want to purchase. Language can have life-altering effects on us. We may be convinced to take a job in a new city or to vote for a particular political candidate. Gorgias, the rockstar rhetorician of ancient Greece, likened language to a kind of drug, or pharmakon. To me, that appears to be a reasonable explanation for the brainwashing and spellbinding experienced by the German population under Hitler in the early-to-mid twentieth century. But then, it’s easy to see when it’s happening to other people: “How could all those Germans have just fallen right in line with that evil man? Couldn’t they see through his lies?” No, most could not. It’s easy to see when others are being persuaded. It’s painful and difficult to observe it in ourselves. We like to believe we are immune to persuasion, but we are all persuadable.

Persuasion

It’s not just language that is persuasive, though. It is the combined effects of rhetoric that persuade us. Hitler’s powers of persuasion included his mannerisms, gesticulations, the timbre and inflection of his voice, his word choice (diction), the way he constructed sentences (syntax), and his use of rhetorical techniques like allusion or antithesis. It was his use of symbolism and architecture (such as the golden eagle, standard in the grand Nazi-party rallies and the ubiquitous swastika) as well as his deft wielding of then-new technologies such as radio, film, and fast travel by airplane. As Quintilian told us, even “the mere look of a man can be persuasive.” Contemporary psychology tells us just as much. Tall people make more money over their lifetime, according to findings on a “height-salary link” that was documented in one study by Timothy A. Judge, PhD and Daniel M. Cable, PhD. In another uncomfortable set of studies, researchers found that attractive women received higher grades in college courses—an effect that diminishes when teaching is conducted remotely and online. We like to think that we’re objective, rational, and fair, but there’s a broad expanse of research that shows the opposite to be true; we’re easily persuaded and carry many deeply held biases and values within us, and these affect the way we perceive and interact with others and the world around us.

We don’t understand, fully, comprehensively, scientifically, how persuasion works. There is, at present, no satisfactory or complete picture of persuasion in the neurological, psychological, rhetorical, or sociological literature. It’s a tricky beast to pin down precisely. Persuasion is complicated. We are practically left with the same conundrum today as our ancestors faced thousands of years ago. In some sense, I am grateful for this. I have no doubt that if a universal theory of persuasion were discovered, corporations, political parties, and governments would take full advantage of the knowledge, and democracy would be in further jeopardy. Yet, even without a universal theory of persuasion, this is essentially the place we find ourselves in. Using imagery, video, hyper-targeted social media advertisements, psychographic profiling techniques, big data, modern computing power, and complex technological distribution mechanisms, persuasion and propaganda have become more powerful and more dangerous today than ever before. As I will write about later in this book, the UK firm Cambridge Analytica used weaponized social media advertising strategies to influence elections all over the world, while companies at present are spending more money on digital advertising than print, billboards, mailers, leaflets, radio, television, magazine, newspaper, and all other forms of traditional advertising combined. And they called those they targeted with the bulk of their budget “The Persuadables.” The Persuadables were a demographic of centrists Cambridge Analytica profiled as being on-the-fence and able to be pushed to vote for one candidate over another. While we don’t know the extent to which Cambridge Analytica influenced presidential results in the U.S. in 2016, we can rightly assume that companies wouldn’t be paying for such services if they didn’t yield results. Digital disinformation is a massive global undertaking, and we are the targets.

Conclusion

Now, I’m not suggesting that we return to the oral culture of the ancient Greeks and all start making speeches as a form of entertainment. (It might be fun, though.) We can’t force a cultural change like that. But what should be most shocking to us is that we have completely abandoned the one field of study that deals directly with disinformation, propaganda, and information literacy in this time of crisis, when there is more technologically advanced disinformation threatening democracy than ever be- fore in the history of humanity. The field of study that deals with these extraordinary questions of truth, credibility, disinformation, propaganda, and information literacy is the study of rhetoric. I know that teaching and learning about rhetoric can be interesting (and even fun) when done right. Furthermore, there may not be anything more powerful for a person to learn than how to speak and write effectively and persuasively. How can we live in a time like this and not teach our children about rhetoric, the field of study that could empower them to disarm disinformation, advocate for their rights and values in an increasingly polarized realm of political discourse, and be resilient to the thousands of advertisements and propagandic messages that are launched at them daily from smart phones, computer screens, and the increasing number of screens in our homes, schools, and places of work? How else to protect them from the idealogues that fill our schools, companies, and communities? Rhetoric is that secret, ancient discipline that can help us in our great time of need. We are all persuadables, and we need help.

Dr. Daniel Lawrence has a recently published book: Disinformed: A History of Humanity's Search for the Truth. It is available here: Amazon US | Amazon UK

The Evolution of Ancient Greek Historiography

Historiography is composed of the principles, theories, or methodology of scholarly historical research and presentation. Here, James Zills looks at how historiography evolved in Ancient Greece, and includes consideration of Homer, Herodotus, and Thucydides.

Homer as shown in 1493 in the Nuremberg Chronicles.

Greek historiography arguably began with the epic poems of Homer; though many scholars debate his actual existence. Homer’s poems focused mainly on the heroes and gods of what would later become “Greek Mythology” during the Trojan War and the fall of Troy. The Homeric Epics narrowed the events in Greek history to individuals and lacked a timeline of events for historians to follow. The issue of validity of the poems created the need for subsequent historians to fill in the gaps and broaden the scope of Greek history. The evolution of Greek historiography began out of a necessity to fill in crucial gaps in historical events, timelines; the Homeric Poems and stories from bards filled with mythological gods, and undeniable inaccuracies required elimination. The gradual elimination of deities and a quest for accurate and reliable sources from historians such as Herodotus, Thucydides, and Polybius shaped the writing and reporting of history in Greece. 

The historiography of Ancient Greece arguably traces its roots back to the bards who would recite epic tales most notably the ones accredited to Homer. The issue with these epic poems is that they were passed down orally and fails to give details such as dates, and has such a narrow scope; it leaves historians questioning its authenticity from a historical perspective. The Iliadand Odyssey composed four to five hundred years after the fall of Troy giving those more of an imaginative or artistic narrative[1]. The narrowness was not the only issue later historians would have with Homer’s works; the mythical gods and implausible characters made the poems an unreliable source. When modern historians began to develop Greek historical writing, the value in myth or anything mythical began to fade.[2]

God(s) Were Never On Your Side

The gods that dominated and controlled the fate of the heroes in early Greek oral history came into question by Herodotus. He began to write history in prose and is known as the “father of history.”[3] While many may argue that the work of Herodotus fails to fall in line with the conception of historiography; he plays a pivotal role in the way history is recorded thus aiding in the evolution of Greek historiography. Herodotus’ view on history was much broader that his predecessors.  His expansion on history included the interactions of Greece with foreign countries and remote ages that were reliant on the information of witnesses instead of stories passed down for generations.[4] While his writings were reliant on some form of eyewitness accounts, he was not immune from the use of mythical events as a reference point in history.[5] Unfortunately, for Herodotus, this takes away the validity of his works, but does not diminish his role in the evolution of historiography in Greece. 

While the writings of Herodotus, not wholly clouded with mythical gods and events, he did use them on occasion. An outlandish version of Hercules written by Herodotus, places the Greek God in Egypt where he slaughtered thousands of Egyptians before his thwarted sacrifice[6]. This particular story is implausible due to the nature of the subject’s views of sacrifices and the absurdity of how one could kill so many. The prose approach that Herodotus took to writing or recording history is his contribution to the evolution of historiography in Greece. Perhaps his bilateral approach to fact and fiction was an attempt to appease those who still widely believed in mythology. As to whether Herodotus actually believed this is debatable; he believed much of the myth in Greek history to be “silly fables”.[7]

Herodotus focused on the cause and effect that events had on society correlating them with timelines from Egyptian history records. His works served to broaden the viewpoint given by the bards, inasmuch as he wrote about remote antiquity and all aspects of culture.[8] Herodotus’ greatest critic was Thucydides, who unlike his “competitor” focuses on politics and military matters. Thucydides eventually argued that myth only served as entertainment and lacked any factual value to history. Thucydides weakened the position myth held in historical accuracy by being critical of it and omitting it from his works. His believe was that while his work may be less appealing to the masses; the minority of the population who wanted truth are appreciative. 

Thucydides along with Herodotus differed in their approaches in documenting and presenting, but shared contrasting viewpoints on all things mythical. Thucydides only conceded that the belief in such entities was the guiding factor in historical event, but the idea of actual existence is “laughable”.[9] His controversial, yet influential works began to change public opinion on the actuality of mythological gods. The way in which Thucydides described the past in his works served to change the perception of historical events. Thucydides’ strict refusal to write on anything that he felt was unreliable in an attempt to present the most accurate historical accounts possible though underappreciated at the time became the norm for future historians. During the era of the Polis, the way in which history documentation began a slow and painful change with the help of historians like Herodotus and Thucydides. 

Too Good To Be True

Historical events became broader and depending on who the historian was, accounts came under more scrutiny. During this period, oral accounts still held weight, but the modern historians of the time evolved the way in which they documented it. The idea of documented history based on verifiable evidence began to hold, although slowly. The Hellenistic Age brought with it a more stringent attempt to preserve, capture, define, and evaluate history. Scholars set to preserve the accounts of previous historians as well as improve on their understanding.[10] The most notable historian to come from the Hellenistic Age is Polybius, who emphasized the importance of geographical knowledge and a sensible political view from historians.[11]

Polybius along with the rest of the scholars of the Hellenistic Age aided in the evolution of Greek historiography by searching for truth, motives, and the lessons behind historical events. They recorded history with much more accuracy than their predecessors. The introduction of new cultures to the citizens of Greece brought with it new methods of recording and chronicling time. The scholars of the Hellenistic Age began a trend of filling in the gaps and providing more accuracy to events that would evolve with future generations of Greek historians. The difference in viewpoints of past historians served to expand the horizons of Greek historians and those who read them. As curiosity and the search for accuracy grew with the scholars and their capacity for experimenting and adapting to cultural changes furthered the evolution of Greek historiography.[12]

From its critical beginning, Greek Historiography shows a need to evolve into historical accuracy instead of uplifting, heroic Epic Poems. While the entertainment value of Homeric Poems is timeless, Greek historians felt the necessity to expound upon them and historical fact to them. This eventually led to the debunking or omission of any information from the poems as Greek historiography transitioned to prose. The evolution of Greek Historiography began out of a necessity to fill in crucial gaps in historical events, timelines; the Homeric Poems and stories from bards filled with mythological gods, and undeniable inaccuracies required elimination. The gradual elimination of deities and a quest for accurate and reliable sources from historians such as Herodotus, Thucydides, and Polybius shaped the way history was written and reported in Greece. Those historians who were critical of their predecessors and questioned the validity of existing history helped shape the perception of history and aided in the evolution of Greek historiography.  

What do you think of Greek historiography? Let us know below.

Now you can read James’ article on fascism in 1930s America here.

[1] Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, 3rd ed Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 2007, 5.

[2] A.E. Wardman, "Myth in Greek Historiography." Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte 9, no. 4, 403.

[3] Arnaldo Modigliani, "Greek Historiography." History and Theory 17, no. 1, 2.

[4] Kurt Von Fritz, "Herodotus and the Growth of Greek Historiography." Transactions and Proceedings 

of the American Philological Association 67, 315.

[5] Fritz, 315.

[6] Wardman, 404.

[7] Encyclopedia Britannica

[8] Donald R. Kelly, Versions of History from Antiquity to the Enlightenment. New Haven: Yale University Press, 18.

[9] Breisach, 14.

[10] Ernst Breisach, 31.

[11] Momigliano, 8.

[12] Momigliano, 10. 

Bibliography

Breisach, Ernst. 1994. Historiography : Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Accessed December 8, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central.

Kelley, Donald R., ed. 1991. Versions of History from Antiquity to the Enlightenment. New Haven: Yale University Press. Accessed December 8, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central.

Momigliano, Arnaldo. "Greek Historiography." History and Theory 17, no. 1 (1978): 1-28. Accessed December 9, 2020. doi:10.2307/2504899.

Wardman, A. E. "Myth in Greek Historiography." Historia: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte 9, no. 4 (1960): 403-13. Accessed December 9, 2020. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4434671.

Von Fritz, Kurt. "Herodotus and the Growth of Greek Historiography." Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 67 (1936): 315-40. Accessed December 9, 2020. doi:10.2307/283244.

"Historiography - Greek Historiography." Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed December 8, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/topic/historiography/Greek-historiography.

5 Weird Facts about the Ancient Olympics

The Ancient Olympics were held in Greece from 776 BC until they were stopped in 393 AD; however they were very different to the modern Olympics. Here, Adrian Burrows returns and tells us five odd facts about the Ancient Olympics.

You can read a past ancient history article from Adrian on The Weapon that Conquered Ancient Egypt here.

A 19th century depiction of Olympia, Greece in ancient times.

Notwithstanding a short break (what’s a millennia and a half between friends ay?), the Olympics have been a part of humanity’s story for the last 2,800 years – ish. The start of the Ancient Olympics is usually attributed to the year 776 BC - that’s when the first Olympic Games took place in the town of Olympia; situated somewhere between the city-states of Elis and Sparta on the west coast of the Peloponnese. The first Games consisted of only one event, the Stade race, in which runners had to run 280 meters (or a Stadion, the word we derive ‘stadium’ from). The race was unremarkable, should 20 competitors decide to run a Stade race today it would be remarkably similar to a modern sprint – other than the fact that male competitors would all be naked of course. Which would certainly make for some unflattering media coverage, or perhaps a 21st century resurgence of the Stade race would make the Olympics more popular than ever? 

There are many other ways that the Ancient Olympics differ to our modern Olympics but this list represents by far the weirdest.

Only Men Could Compete

The Ancient Olympics was both primarily a religious event and also a strictly man only affair. That’s not to say that women couldn’t take part in their own sporting events - they could compete in the Heraean Games, though many of the finer details of this event have been lost to the mists of time – but they were forbidden from entering the Olympics. In fact, if you were a married woman you were prevented from even watching the Olympics. The punishment for ogling the jiggling glutes of the male competitors for a wed woman was severe - if you were caught you’d be thrown off a mountain.

That’s not to say that a woman never won the Olympic Games however. Who achieved this seemingly impossible feat? That would be a Spartan woman called Kyniska, daughter of the Archidamos. Oddly, the winner of a chariot race was not the rider, rather it was the owner of the horses who received the glory – enabling Kyniska to win the event, without actually being there. The rider - despite being in command of a rickety chariot pulled by four muscle bound horses over some 12 laps and 14,000 metres – received a grand total of zilch for their efforts. 

They Were Stinky. Very Stinky

Today, a country fortunate enough to hold the Olympics must invest millions into creating custom built stadiums. Not only are they perfectly constructed in every conceivable way, providing the ideal environment for the athletes competing within them, they also offer comprehensive comfort for the spectators. Offering food, drink, seating and – most importantly – lots and lots of toilets. 

The spectators of the Ancient Olympics had no such luxury, Every four years (that’s an Olympiad) over 50,000 people descended on the ordinarily virtually uninhabited Olympia (a few priests kept things ticking over but that was about it). 50,000 people sat in the hot sun with only a river to poop in. Just imagine the stench. Add to that the fact that 100 oxen would be sacrificed and burnt on the Alter of Zeus in the middle of the festival. There’s one thing for certain though - no candle manufacturer will ever be making an overpriced candle infused with the scent of the Ancient Olympics.

A Dead Person Won the Olympics

The Ancient Olympics were a brutal affair, boxing and wrestling were much more violent than the modern versions we are used to seeing on our televisions today. Though both these blood soaked spectacles paled in gore levels compared to Pankration – the mixed martial arts of the Ancient world. Pankration had only two rules, no biting and no poking out anyone’s eye. Other than that, anything went!

One remarkable account details the final fight of Arrhichion of Phigalia. Arrhichion was trapped in the vice like grip of his formidable opponent. Arms like steely vein covered greasy oil coated pythons were wrapped around his neck, and try as he might Arrhichion could not free himself. As his vision began to fade Arrhichion stamped as hard as he could on his opponent’s foot. The pain was so intense that this unknown fighter released Arrhichion and submitted. The crowd went wild, Arrhichion had overcame the odds and won. But while the crowd went bananas Arrhichion remained unmoving on the sand and dirt. He was dead.

That didn’t dampen the celebration however. Despite being very deceased, Arrhichion was crowned the victor and returned to Phigalia a hero.

More Gore than Ever Before

Arrhichion’s final victory was not the goriest event to take place in the Ancient Olympics, instead that honour would fall to the boxing match between Damoxenos and Creugas. In Ancient Boxing there were no weight classes and the matches were randomly picked. So you could end up with a bout in which one fighter had a significant size and weight advantage over the other. Which reportedly was the case when these Damoxenos and Creugas, two undefeated champions, went up against each other. 

Damoxenos was a massive slab of humanity, whilst Creugas was smaller but incredibly nimble. And a good thing too, with no boxing gloves fighters instead just wrapped their fists in leather; one punch from the giant Damoxenos would have levelled Creugas, and with no rules stating otherwise, the bigger man could keep on punching Creugas in the head – regardless of whether or not he could defend himself. Either way power vs agility had led to a draw, meaning a ‘klimax’ was enforced. Here each man takes it in turns to hit the other with full force; this is an unprotected blow taking at their liberty. Like some sort of blood soaked penalty shootout the fight ends when only one man is left standing. 

Creugas went first, he punched the bigger man in the head as hard as he could. But to little avail, Damoxenos just shrugged off the assault. Then it was Damoxenos’ turn, Creugas braced himself as this terrifying beast punched him with full force with straight fingers into the bread basket. Damoxenos clearly needed a manicure as his sharp nails ripped at Creugas’ skin. Damoxenos then ripped his fingers once more along Creugas’ abdomen, gutting the fighter like a pig and causing his innards to come tumbling out like meat and potato from a freshly bitten pie. 

It was all over, Creugus had won. That’s right, Creugus. Damoxenos had been disqualified as the rules of the ‘Klimax’ state one punch at a time only. Sure, Creugas’ guts were getting a sun tan but it was all worth it for that laurel wreath.

The World’s Greatest

These days, in every Olympic event, multiple world records are smashed. Athletes are lucky to hold on to their world record for a decade but it is rare for a competitor to hold a record for fifty years, let alone a hundred. Yet there was one ancient athlete who held his record for over two thousand years. Yes, TWO THOUSAND YEARS. This phenomenal specimen of a Homo Sapien was Leonidas of Rhodes. 

He first competed in the Olympic Games of the 154th Olympiad in 164 BCE, where Leonidas captured the laurel wreath in three different races; the stadion, the diaulos (a foot race of 400 metres) and the hoplitodromos (a diaulos where the runners wear armour – talk about exhausting!). He then went on to win these three events over the next three consecutive Olympiads. Bear in mind that in the Ancient Olympics there was no second or third place, you were either a winner… or a massive loser.

This astonishing act, of winning twelve individual Olympic victories, was unmatched until 2016; when Michael Phelps, the American swimmer, won his 13th Olympic Gold.

Adrian is a co-owner of Imagining History workshops. Imagining History provides educational history workshops for primary schools that captivate and entertain.

Their interactive sessions combine role-play, storytelling, demonstrations and drama and performance to bring history to life for students.

Imagining History offer loads of free digital history resources for teachers and parents. You can find content on Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt and more at www.imagininghistory.co.uk/blog.

You can also check out their biweekly Youtube series ‘Headlines from History’. 

The Theater in Ancient Greece: Tragedies, Key Playwrights - and Masks

The theater in ancient Greece was a place where politics, religion, popular figures, and legends were all discussed and performed with great enthusiasm. People came from all across the Greek world to attend the popular theaters held in open-air amphitheaters. In the so-called 'glory days' some amphitheaters could accommodate crowds of up to 15,000 people, and some were so acoustically precise that a coin dropped at the center of the performance circle could be heard perfectly in the back row.

The origin of the dramatic arts in Greece was in Athens, where ancient hymns were chanted in honor of the gods. These hymns were later adapted into choral processions where participants would dress up in costumes and enact the narratives. Eventually, certain members of the chorus evolved to carry out exceptional roles within the procession and, hence, Greek theater came to life.

Jamil Bakhtawar explains.

An ancient Roman painting from the House of Vettii in Pompeii, showing the death of Pentheus from Euripides’ Bacchae.

A festival for the gods

One of the Greek festivals was called the 'City Dionysia’. It was a festival of entertainment held in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility, and featured competitions in music, singing, dance, and poetry. The revelry-filled event was conducted by drunken men dressed up in rough goat skins (goats were thought to be sexually potent). The Greeks entertained large crowd gatherings during these festivals by dramatizing scripted plays, often with only one person acting and directing the transition of each scene. As the playwrights evolved, a handful of actors produced on-stage performances consisting of a live chorus and musical background.

One particular theater, built to honor Dionysus, was called Epidaurus. It was the greatest theater in the western world and is often considered a pioneer of engineering by today’s standards. Fifty-five semi-circular rows of seats were built into the hillside with such precision that the theater had perfect acoustics. Named after the god of medicine Asklepios, it was believed that the Epidaurus (and theaters in general) had beneficial effects on mental and physical health. It was regarded as an important healing center and is considered to be the cradle of medicinal arts. Two-and-a-half-thousand years later, it is still in use and is among the largest of the surviving Greek theaters.

The Greek tragedy

Little is known about the origins of the Greek tragedy before Aeschylus (c. 525-c. 455 B.C.), the most innovative of the Greek dramatists. His earliest surviving work is 'Persians', which was produced in 472 B.C. The roots of the Greek tragedy, however, are likely embedded in the Athenian spring festival of Dionysus; which included processions, religious sacrifices, parades, and competitions. Early Greek theater focused on tragic themes that still resonate with contemporary audiences. The word “tragedy” translates from “goat song,” a phrase rooted in the Dionysus Festival of dancing around sacrificial goats for a prize. The original Greek tragedies centered on mythology or historical significance that portrayed the antagonist’s search for the meaning of life. Other times, playwrights focused the overall tragedy on the nature of the gods and goddesses.

Of the few surviving Greek tragedies, all but Aeschylus’ Persians draw from heroic myths. The protagonist and the chorus portrayed the heroes who were the objects of religious cult in Attica in the fifth century B.C. Often, the dialogue between the actor and chorus served as a didactic function, linking it to a form of public discourse with debates in the assembly.

Each surviving tragedy began with a prolog that explained the action in each corresponding scene. Subsequently, the chorus introduced the paradox; a transition whereby the audience becomes familiar with the characters, exposition, and overall mood of the setting. Finally, the exodus implies the departure of the chorus and characters derived through the play’s duration.

Some of the oldest surviving tragedies in the world were written by three renowned Greek playwrights. Aeschylus composed several notable tragedies, including “The Persians,” and the “Oresteia” trilogy. To this day, drama in all its forms still functions as a powerful medium for transmitting ideas.

Ancient comedies

The exact beginnings of Greek comedic plays are not known. Some historians believe they could have started from the activity of actors mimicking one another as well as making jokes about current plays and more. During the 6th century BCE, the plays started to incorporate scenes involving actors dressed in exaggerated costumes mostly of animals. They would subsequently perform a dance much to the audience’s delight. Various poems involving humor as well as songs would be performed during plays.

Unlike the Greek tragedy, comic performances produced in Athens during the fifth century B.C., the 'Old Comedy', ridiculed mythology and prominent members of Athenian society. There seems to have been no limit to speech or action in the comic exploitation of sex and other bodily functions. Terracotta figurines and vase paintings dated around the time of Aristophanes (450–ca. 387 B.C.) show comic actors wearing grotesque masks and tights with padding on the rump and belly, as well as a leather phallus.

In the second half of the fourth century B.C., 'the New Comedy' of Menander (343–291 B.C.) and his contemporaries presented fresh interpretations to familiar material. In many ways comedy became simpler and tamer, with very little obscenity. The grotesque padding and phallus of the Old Comedy were abandoned in favor of more naturalistic costumes that reflected the playwrights’ modern style. Subtle differentiation of masks worn by the actors paralleled the finer delineation of character in the texts of the New Comedy; which dealt with private and family life, social tensions, and the triumph of love in a variety of contexts.

Major playwrights of the time

There were many Greek playwrights, but only the major works of three dramatists have survived: Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. They wrote plays for the City Dionysia, but the central idea of each of their plays were different.

The plays of Aeschylus explore the dangers of arrogance, the misuse of power and the bloody consequences of revenge. Aeschylus was the first to introduce a second actor during on-stage performances. His trilogy, the Oresteia, explores the chain of revenge set into motion by king Agamemnon’s decision to sacrifice his daughter in return for a fair wind to take his ships to Troy. 

Sophocles wrote seven popular tragedies including “Antigone,” “Electra,” and “Oedipus Rex” to name a few. Sophocles' playwrights are focused around the redemptive power of suffering. A good example of this is the character of Oedipus in Oedipus Rex. He portrayed Oedipus as a good-hearted but headstrong young man who kills his own father without knowing that he is his father, and marries his mother without realizing that she is his biological mother. When he discovers what he has done, he blinds himself in remorse. Sophocles introduced a third actor during on-stage performances and was the first dramatist to include painted backdrops.

Euripides, the last of the three, belongs to a somewhat later generation of Greek thought, and is a far more troubled, questioning and unsatisfied spirit. Euripides was thought of as the most direct of the three in his questioning of Athenian society and its established beliefs. He composed over ninety plays, with roughly eighteen surviving pieces studied and incorporated by contemporary playwrights; including “Medea,” “Hercules,” and “The Trojan Women.” Critics lambasted Euripedes’ questionable values presented during his on-stage performances, often depicting varying psychological archetypes not explored by previous playwrights. Many authors modeled Euripedes’ experimentalism centuries after his death. 

The Grecian playwrights also injected humor into certain aspects of theater. Popular comedians competed during the Athenian festivals, including Aristophanes, who authored more than forty plays. Among his eleven surviving plays included a controversial script entitled “Lysistrata,” a tale about a strong, independent woman who heads a female-based coalition against the war in Greece. 

Each of these playwrights introduced something new to Athenian drama when their plays were chosen as the best, and it is largely because of these writers that theater developed into the way it has now. Despite the limited number of surviving tragedies and comedies, the Greeks greatly influenced the development of drama in the Western world.

The art behind a mask

It was common practice for Greek actors to use masks. These theatre masks were thought to amplify the actor’s voice and contribute to the theatrical ambiance. They have since become icons of the ancient Greek culture and sought after collectors’ items. Highly decorated masks were worn during feasts and celebrations as well as during funeral rites and religious ceremonies. These masks were constructed out of lightweight organic material, such as linen or cork, and copied from marble or bronze faceplates. Often, a wig was attached to the top of the mask. The mask was then painted; usually brown to represent a man and white for a woman. There were two holes for the eyes, large enough for the actor to see the audience but small enough so as not to allow the audience to see him. The shape of the masks amplified the actor’s voice, causing his words to be easier for the audience to hear.

There were several practical reasons for using masks in the theater. Due to the sheer size of the amphitheaters they were performing in, exaggerated costumes and masks with vivid colors were much more visible to a distant member of the crowd than a regular face. Masks were also worn for a transformation into character. There were only two or three actors present in each production, so masks allowed for quick character changes between scenes. Masks were tools for the audience to learn something about the character, whether it be a huge beard and roaring mouth to represent the conquering hero, or curved nose and sunken eyes to represent the trickster. Tragic masks carried mournful or pained expressions, comic masks were seen smiling or leering. 

Many masks have survived, as well as literary descriptions of the masks and artistic recreations in frescoes and vase paintings. One can see the evidence of the importance of masks at almost any surviving ancient Greek theater. Statues depicting the grotesquely laughing, crying, or raging masks stare down at innocent viewers, their lips largely engorged and eyes so rounded and saucer-like, one would think the mask itself had a mind of its own.

Theatrics of the stage

The Greek theater stage consisted essentially of the orchestra, a flat dancing floor of the chorus, and the actual structure of the theater building known as the ‘theatron'. Since theaters in antiquity were frequently modified and rebuilt, the surviving remains offer little evidence of the nature of the theatrical space available to Classical dramatists in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. There is no physical evidence for a circular orchestra earlier than that of the great theater at Epidauros dated to around 330 B.C. Most likely, the audience in fifth-century B.C. Athens was seated close to the stage in a rectilinear arrangement, such as appears at the well-preserved theater at Thorikos in Attica. During this initial period in Greek drama, the stage and most probably the skene(stage building) were made of wood. Vase paintings depicting Greek comedy from the late fifth and early fourth centuries B.C. suggest that the stage stood about a meter high with a flight of steps in the center. The actors entered from either side or a central door in the skene, which also housed the ekkyklema, a wheeled platform with sets of scenes. A crane, located at the right end of the stage, was used to hoist gods and heroes through the air onto the stage. Greek dramatists made the most of the extreme contrasts between the gods up high and the actors on stage, and between the dark interior of the stage building and the bright daylight.

Athens

The city of theater was, indeed, Athens. Athens birthed drama, bred drama, and ultimately was responsible for cultivating it into the most important art of the Classical and Modern world. Greek theater has proven itself to be timeless as it continues to entertain audiences with its ability to portray universal themes. Although many of the plays have been lost through the ages, many of the originals from the 5th and 6th century BCE are regularly performed around the world and are still looked at as the top of their craft.

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References

https://www.theaterseatstore.com/blog/ancient-greek-theater

http://www.ancientgreece.com/s/Theatre/

https://www.greekboston.com/culture/theater-evolved/

https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/greece/gr1180e.html

https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/thtr/hd_thtr.htm

https://schoolworkhelper.net/history-of-greek-theater/