The Final Meeting of Sir Winston Churchill and Canadian Prime Minister Mackenzie King

Below is an excerpt from the book "The Third Man: Churchill, Roosevelt, Mackenzie King, and the Untold Friendships That Won WWII” by Neville Thompson. The excerpt focuses on the last meeting between Sir Winston Churchill and Canadian Prime Minister Mackenzie King.

The book is available here: Amazon US | Amazon UK

Quebec Conference, 1943. In the back row are Mackenzie King and Sir Winston Churchill. In the front sit US President Roosevelt and the Earl of Athlone, Governor General of Canada.

In late 1948, three years after the end of the war and close to half a century after their first encounter, Mackenzie King and Winston Churchill met for the last time. King was no longer the leader of the Liberal party, having care­fully engineered Louis St. Laurent into that position at the convention to choose a successor in August 1948. But he remained as prime minister in order to rep­resent Canada at a Commonwealth prime ministers conference in October. King looked forward to his farewell appearance after quarter of a century of being the crucial figure at such events. He was unquestionably the senior figure in the British dominions.

On his way to London, King stopped in Paris for a session of the United Nations. Eleanor Roosevelt was there as a member of the US delegation and Chair of the Commission on Human Rights which produced the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the UN in December. She was stay­ing in the same hotel, in a room close to King’s. They did not spend much time together, but they did reminisce about the past and Eleanor repeated her husband’s affection for King and the many confidences he had shared. At a dinner of dominion representatives, British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Ernest Bevin gave a toast to King on his retirement. Not having been forewarned, King had no reply prepared but he spontaneously pronounced a benediction on the Commonwealth. During his long years as prime minister, he said that he had tried to keep before him:

The best traditions of British public life. That I realized what the nations of the Commonwealth had derived in that way. Real bonds between nations of the Commonwealth were love of freedom, of liberty which had been inherited from the struggles of Britain, and the example of public men.

In Paris, King had been far more tired than usual, unable to breathe or sleep easily, and perspiring freely, all of which suggests blocked arteries. Shortly after his arrival in London, he felt too unwell to leave the Dorchester Hotel. Lord Moran, Churchill’s personal doctor, diag­nosed heart strain for which he prescribed digitalis, sleeping pills, and morphine, and arranged for a night nurse. He went with King to a heart specialist, Sir John Parkinson, who took an x-ray and a cardiograph and detected edema (swelling) in one leg owing to poor circulation. Moran banned salt and recommended bed rest for two weeks. In fact, King remained there for three. Moran came practi­cally every day, although there was nothing further he could provide other than encouragement. He did not charge for his services but a few months later King sent him £150.8. King was characteristically proud that his illness, indeed his whole stay in London, cost Canadian taxpayers nothing since the expense of the conference was covered by the British government. Since he could not attend the sessions, St. Laurent came by air to represent Canada after all.

Lord Moran’s concern in attending King was not his fee but his literary ambi­tion. He was a prominent practitioner and medical politician (as president of the Royal College of Physicians he was known to general practitioners as “Corkscrew Charlie” for concentrating on the interests of specialists in negotiations over the National Health Scheme) who knew that his real fame depended on producing an account of his association with Churchill. He was reviewing and reworking his diaries to present an attention-catching account to be published after his great patient’s death, which he had no reason to think would be long delayed. King’s confinement was a heaven-sent opportunity to sharpen and increase his knowledge by adding the experience of someone who had been, as Moran had not, at many private meetings and informal discussions with Churchill and also Roosevelt.

On the very first day, they talked about Churchill for over an hour and found themselves in substantial agreement. Moran observed, and King did not dissent, that Churchill had achieved great things despite his faults. He was very strong willed, thought in big terms, and his knowledge of military history was so exten­sive that he could dominate any situation and not leave others much chance to say anything. Churchill recognized the value of experts but did not allow them to control. King was not so indiscreet as to tell Moran that Field Marshall Montgomery had said that he did not want Churchill around during the fighting, and that Field Marshall Harold Alexander (now governor general of Canada) had said that he had to stand up to prevent Churchill’s interference. But King did confirm that Churchill did most of the talking in cabinet and was inconsiderate of others: even Labour’s Attlee and the Liberal leader, Sir Archibald Sinclair, members of the War Cabinet, were treated almost with contempt, and most col­leagues feared to say anything. To get his way, Churchill would work himself into an emotional state.

On the other hand, King attested that Churchill was loyal to his friends, stuck to his word in getting things done, and had great courage, “no fear in the world. In that way gave a powerful example to others.” King also pointed out that many were attracted by the desire to associate with such a towering figure. He claimed not to have liked what Churchill told him about the effectiveness of flattery, although King was both susceptible and not sparing in his own use of it. While no one could say if the war would have been won if anything had hap­pened to Churchill and Roosevelt, King considered that a change of leadership might have shortened the European conflict since the Germans were terrified of Churchill. Both he and Moran considered that unconditional surrender (which was Roosevelt’s and not Churchill’s insistence) had been a mistake since it had closed every door and made the fighting more intense.

Moran also wanted to discuss relations between Churchill and Roosevelt, about which King knew a great deal. He said that Churchill had repeatedly insisted that they must meet the president in every way possible and never forget that he was Britain’s greatest friend. On the difference between them over sharing research on the atomic bomb with the Soviets, King, whose opinion had changed with the Cold War, now thought Churchill had been right that it should be with­held. A couple of days later, Moran told King that he had noticed that Roosevelt was failing at the 1944 Quebec conference and by Yalta was completely used up. This was not surprising for a detached physician and was no revelation to King, but it would have been to the public if it had been publicized on such authority, just three and a half years after Roosevelt’s death.

In addition to Moran, Mackenzie King received a stream of other visitors at his bedside: Louis St. Laurent, of course, Attlee, Jawaharlal Nehru, the prime minister of India, Ernest Bevin and future British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, who wanted to inquire about King’s memoirs which it was assumed the Macmillan company, his family firm, would publish. It must have been a great encouragement that Bevin, who managed to carry on in one of the most demanding jobs in the government, said that his symptoms were exactly like King’s; and more people that Moran implied Bevin’s condition was the result of excessive drinking. This held out the expectation that King’s abste­mious lifestyle would speed his recovery. King George VI paid his Canadian prime minister the great compliment of going to see him at the hotel. So did his uncle, Lord Athlone, who came as chancellor of the University of London with an academic delegation and an honorary degree, for which King got out of bed and dressed. There were also personal friends, notably the social reformer Violet Markham, and three sessions with spiritualists, one of whom contacted Franklin Roosevelt as well as Lord Tweedsmuir. But the highlight, on the second to last day, was Winston Churchill, still leader of the British Conservative Party, whom King would have been sorry to miss.

Churchill arrived with a copy of the British edition of The Gathering Storm. He was sorry to find his old friend in such poor condition but not greatly concerned since he had recovered from worse himself (the next summer he would quickly recuperate from a stroke). King was amazed at how well his contemporary looked—“quite young and strong”—and the quantity of work he was able to do. Churchill said that he relaxed a lot, sometimes painting for three hours a day. He was also buoyed by having just denounced the Labour government’s handling of world affairs in parliament in the same hard terms that he had used at the Conservative annual conference a couple of weeks earlier.  (Prime Minister Attlee, who arrived later, told King that he had been hurt by the accusations of timidity towards the Soviet Union, responsibility for the slaughter following Indian independence, the chaos in Palestine, and the charge that his government would force Northern Ireland into joining Eire which was becoming an independent republic with no ties to the United Kingdom.)

King agreed with Attlee that Churchill’s speech was extreme, even alarming in his claim that Conservative governments would come to power in Britain and all the old dominions and take proper command of the Commonwealth. Many British Conservatives were offended by their leader’s belligerence but kept their heads down and deferred to the international hero who they hoped would carry them back to office in the election that was sched­uled for 1950. This mutinous feeling was expressed to King three months later by the still exasperated Anthony Eden, Churchill’s former deputy, who said that while the great man was mellowing, he still refused to surrender the party leadership.

In their bedside conversation at the Dorchester, King and Churchill did not touch on contemporary controversies but stuck to the tranquilizing triumphs of the past. Churchill declared, although it is not clear how he could have known, that King had been much missed at the Commonwealth conference. He also cheered the invalid by assuring him again of his great services during the war: “You have never failed. You were helpful always. There was nothing that you did not do, that could be done.” He mentioned, in particular, the Commonwealth air training plan and King’s refusal to support Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies’ desire for the dominions to play a larger part in the direction of the war in order to undermine Churchill. He reiterated that King had been a bridge between Britain and the United States, specifying his help in the possible move of the Royal Navy to the United States. He recalled King’s encouraging telephone call after Churchill’s famous “Iron Curtain” speech two years earlier, and could not resist adding that every point in the address had since been borne out. The two parted with emotion, Churchill’s eyes filling with tears, yet King was annoyed that on his way out he asked the high commissioner (Norman Robertson) to ensure that the press was informed of his visit.

There was no sense that this was their last meeting. Once he recovered his health, King expected to continue visiting Britain, as he had when out of office in the early 1930s. Churchill hoped to go to Toronto in the spring to receive an honorary degree and wanted King to attend. King in turn invited Churchill to Ottawa. But King would not recover, and they would never meet again.

You can buy The Third Man: Churchill, Roosevelt, Mackenzie King, and the Untold Friendships That Won WWII here: Amazon US | Amazon UK

About the Author 

Neville Thompson is a professor emeritus of history at the University of Western Ontario, where he taught modern British and European history. He is the author of The Anti-Appeasers: Opposition to Appeasement in the 1930s, Wellington After Waterloo, and Canada and the End of the Imperial Dream. His latest book The Third Man: Churchill, Roosevelt, Mackenzie King, and the Untold Friendships That Won WWII is released in hardcover in February 2021 with Sutherland House Books. He lives in Ottawa.

Copyright line

From "THE THIRD MAN: Churchill, Roosevelt, Mackenzie King, and the Untold Friendships That Won WWII" by Neville Thompson. Copyright © 2021 by Neville Thompson. Reprinted by permission of Sutherland House Books.

The Legendary African-American World War II Pilots: The Tuskegee Airmen

The Tuskegee Airmen were a group of primarily African-American pilots who fought in World War II, with their exploits during the war becoming legendary. The origins and founding of the group came from a response to segregation in both the military and general society. The group’s pilots who fought in Europe and North Africa achieved an impressive combat record, while several myths surroundings the Tuskegee Airmen will be explored here.

Daniel Boustead explains.

Tuskegee Airmen during World War II.

The beginnings of the Tuskegee Airmen came as a direct response from a 1925 study conducted by the American Military which concluded that “Blacks didn’t have the intelligence, ability, or coordination to fly airplanes”([1]). In 1939, Congress ordered the Army Air Corp to accept Blacks into the Civilian Pilot Training Program to provide a cadre of trained pilots should the country be plunged into war ([2]). In 1939 this Civilian Pilot Training Program was granted to the Black segregated college of Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University) ([3]). In the years from 1939 to 1940 almost 100 Black pilots completed the training of the Civilian Pilot Training Program, but the Army Air Corps refused to let them in (2). In September 1940, when President Franklin Roosevelt announced that the Army Air Corps would soon begin training Black pilots ([4]), the War Department choose the Tuskegee Army Airfield as a training site (4).  F.D.R was persuaded by his decision by the N.A.A.C.P and by Black newspapers like the Pittsburgh Courier and the Chicago Defender  (4). In 1940 Black pilot Charles Alfred Anderson came to head up the training program at Tuskegee (2). On January 16, 1941 the War Department announced that a Black flying unit would be formed within the Army Air Corps (9). In March 1941, (as a result of Anderson’s flight with First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt), she gave a $175,000.00 loan to build Moton Field, where the men could take their initial training (2). Moton Field was located at Tuskegee Institute (9). 

In March 1941 the U.S. War Department created the 99th Pursuit Squadron, which was the first unit made up of Black pilots and would become in time a famous Tuskegee Airmen unit (2). This unit soon became the 99th Fighter Squadron (1). By 1943 the 99th had become a combat unit ([5]). The other famous Tuskegee Airmen units were formed in the period from 1942 to 1943: the 100th Squadron, 301st Squadron, and the 302nd Squadron with the 332nd Fighter Group (5). 

In conflict

The Tuskegee Airmen units fought in the North African Theatre of war as well as Europe during the conflict. The 99th Fighter Squadron left Tuskegee and arrived in Morocco on April 2, 1943 under the command of African American officer Lt. Colonel Benjamin O. Davis Jr. (5). The 99th Squadron’s initial combat debut in North Africa resulted in heavy losses against the German Luftwaffe (5). This Squadron redeemed itself in May 1943 when they attacked the Italian Island of Pantelleria in preparation for the invasion of Sicily, which resulted in the entire Island garrison of 11,000 Italians troops surrendering (5). This was very first time in history that an entire Island had surrendered by air attack alone (5). This earned the 99th Fighter Squadron a Distinguished Unit Citation for this effort (5).

In February 1944 a new Black unit called the 332nd Fighter Group left Tuskegee, which consisted of the 100th Squadron, the 301st Squadron, and the 302nd Squadron (5). The 332nd Fighter Group went to Italy where they joined the 99th Fighter Squadron, which was operating at Ramitelli Airfield on the Adriatic Sea (4). The 332nd Fighter Group began operations on February 14, 1944 and they began patrolling the area from Naples Harbor to the Isle of Capri, as well as doing costal patrols (5). The 332nd Fighter Group moved to a new air base at Capodichino, Italy on March 4, 1944 (5). The 99th Fighter Squadron earned a Second Distinguished Unit Citation for their efforts during the Battle of Monte Cassino in May 1944 (5). On May 23, 1944 the 332nd Fighter Group was assigned bomber escort duty for the 15th Army Air Force, making sure the bombers made it safely from Ramitelli to their targets in southeastern Europe and southern Germany (5). The 99th Fighter Squadron won a Third Distinguished Unit Citation for protecting the bombers of the 15th Army Air Force during a bombing mission on March 24, 1945 ([6]). The 332nd was subsequently awarded this Distinguished Unit Citation for the March 24, 1945 mission (7). The 332nd Fighter Group flew its last mission on April 26, 1945 (4).  In the period from 1941 to 1946, 992 Black pilots were trained at Tuskegee, of which 355 pilots flew in combat over the skies of Southern Europe (7). The Tuskegee Airmen flew 1,578 combat missions, 1,267 for the Twelfth Army Air Force, and 311 for the Fifteenth Army Air Force, destroyed 262 enemy aircraft (112 in the air, 150 on the ground), 950 rail cars, trucks, and other motor vehicles, and 40 boats and barges (7). The 99thFighter Squadron even set an Army Air Corps record for shooting down five German planes in less than four minutes (6). 

Myths

There were various myths written about the Tuskegee Airmen that increased the group’s “God-Like” standing in the annals of Military History. The first big myth was that the Tuskegee Airmen never lost a bomber. This myth existed for many years after the war and was even mentioned on a Family Matters TV episode in 1992 when Estelle Winslow talked about the Tuskegee Airmen (8). In the period of June 9, 1944 to March 24, 1945, 27 Heavy Bombers from the 15th Army Air Force were shot down while under escort from the 332nd Fighter Group (9). In contrast the 15th Army Air Force lost an average of 46 Heavy Bombers when being escorted by other fighter groups (9). During the period from June 1944 to May 1945 the 15th Army Air Force lost a total of 303 Heavy Bombers that were shot down by enemy aircraft (9) over 7 escort periods. 

Another important myth was that the Tuskegee Airmen were the first to implement a “Stick to the Bomber” policy.  The “Stick to the Bomber” policy had been instituted by Major General Ira Eaker while he was commander of the Eighth Army Air Force, long before the Tuskegee Airmen ever escorted a bomber (9). In January 1944, General Eaker moved to the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations to serve as commander of Mediterranean Allied Air Forces and he took his “Stick to the Bomber” policy with him(9). Eaker’s “Stick to the Bomber” policy found a home in the 15th Army Air Force where they were followed by the 332nd Fighter Group (9). 

A further myth about the Tuskegee Airmen was that they were the first to bring down the legendary ME-262 Jet. The first German ME-262 Jet Fighter was actually shot down by five Royal Canadian Air Force Fighter pilots belonging to Squadron 401 on October 5, 1944 (10).  The Tuskegee Airmen did shoot down at least 3 Me-262 Jets on March 24, 1945 while escorting the 15th Army Air Force bombing mission to Berlin, Germany (9). The three aircraft destroyed on this mission were attributed to Tuskegee Airmen 1st Lieutenant Roscoe Brown, 1st Lieutenant Earl R. Lane, and 2nd Lieutenant Charles V. Brantley (9).

Another myth was that the Tuskegee Airmen units were all Black men. The misconception is that the Tuskegee Airmen were virtually all Black by the time they deployed overseas and remained Black until the Air Force was desegregated in 1949 (9). The reality is that the first three commanders of the 99th Fighter Squadron (originally called the 99th Pursuit Squadron) were White men (9), and that the first two commanders of the 332nd Fighter Group where White men (9). The vast majority of Tuskegee Airmen were Black though (9). The Tuskegee Airmen also had some Haitian Airmen (11).  However, Eugene Smith, a member of the Tuskegee Airmen was of a mixture of European and Native American Ancestry, yet he was listed as “colored” on his birth certificate (9). The Army Air Forces would only accept Eugene Smith if he went to Tuskegee and so he did (9).

The final myth was that the outstanding Tuskegee Airmen’s war record was alone responsible for President Harry S. Truman efforts to desegregate the military. The Tuskegee Airmen’s record played a small pat in this (9). The combination of Truman wanting to appeal to Black voters in the 1948 Presidential Election and the June 28, 1948 threat by A. Philip Randolph’s “League for Non-Violent Civil Disobedience against Military Segregation” for Blacks to resist the draft, also had a huge impact on President Truman’s decision to desegregate the military in 1948 (9). The President’s Civil Rights report of October 29, 1947 called “To Secure These Rights” had African American leaders telling Secretary of Defense Forrestal to desegregate the military, also played a part in President’s Truman’s decision (9). It was these factors that caused President Truman to sign Executive Order 9981 to desegregate the military on July 26, 1948 (9).

Conclusion

The Tuskegee Airmen’s prowess became the stuff of legend. The group compiled an excellent combat record which helped quell prejudice against Black people. Many myths exist about the Tuskegee Airmen, but several have been exposed and negated here. However, the Tuskegee Airmen hold an important and much revered place in the annals of Military History. 

Now, you can read more World War II history from Daniel: “Did World War Two Japanese Kamikaze Attacks have more Impact than Nazi V-2 Rockets?” here, and “The Navajo Code from World War Two: Was it Unbreakable?” here.

[1] Rivers, Charles Editors. “Far-Reaching Changes- A Portrait of a McGee as a Tuskegee airmen”. The Tuskegee Airmen: The History and Legacy of America’s First Black Fighter Pilots in World War II. Edited by Charles River Editors, 2020, Ch.2. 

[2] River, Charles Editors. “Air Corps Policy Remained as Before”. The Tuskegee Airmen: The History and Legacy of America’s First Black Fighter Pilots in World War II. Edited by Charles River Editors, 2020, Ch.1. 

[3] “Training, CAF Rise Above”.  Accessed on January 18th, 2021. https://cafrisebove.org/the-tuskgee-airmen/tuskgee-airmen-history/training . 

[4] Tuskegee Airmen”. HistoryChannel.com . Last Updated January 16th, 2020. Accessed on December 13th, 2020. https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/tuskgee-airmen.

[5] River, Charles Editors. “Combat-Ready Status”. The Tuskegee Airmen: The History and Legacy of America’s First Black Fighter Pilots in World War II”. Edited by Charles River Editors, 2020. Ch.4. 

[6] River, Charles Editors. “More Time to Prove Itself”. The Tuskegee Airmen: The History and Legacy of America’s First Black Fighter Pilots in World War II. Edited by Charles River Editors, 2020. Ch.5. 

7 River, Charles Editors. “Unique Military Record”. The Tuskegee Airmen: The History and Legacy of America’s First Black Fighter Pilots in World War II. Edited by Charles River Editors, 2020. Ch.7. 

8 “Family Matters-Brown Bombshell  (TV Episode 1992)”. IMDB. Accessed on January 20th, 2021. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0577080/

9 Haulman, Daniel L. “Tuskegee Airmen Myths and Realities”. Air Force Historical Research Agency.( 17th, March, 2014). https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/AFD-141119-026.pdf

10 Montgomery, Marc. “History Canada: Oct. 5, 1944-RCAF down the first German Jet”. Last Updated October 9th, 2018. Accessed on January 20th, 2021. https://www.rcinet.ca/en/2018/10/05/history-canada-oct-5-1944-rcaf-downs-the-first-german-jet/

11 “Haitian Tuskegee Airmen, CAF RISE Above”. Accessed on January 3rd, 2021. https://cafriseabove.org/the-tuskgee-airmen/tuskgee-airmen-history/haitian-tuskgee-airmen/

References

“Family Matters-Brown Bombshell”. (TV Episode 1992)”. IMDB.  Accessed on January 20th, 2021. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0577080/

“Haitian Tuskegee Airmen, CAF RISE Above”.  Accessed on January 3rd, 2021. https://cafriseabove.org/the-tuskegee-airmen-history/haitian-tuskgee-airmen/

Haulman, Daniel L. “Tuskegee Airmen Myths and Realities”. Air Force Historical Research Agency. (17, March, 2014). https://www.afhra.af.mil/Portals/16/documents/Studies/AFD-141119-026.pdf

Montgomery, Marc. “History Canada: Oct. 5, 1944-RCAF down the first German Jet”. Last Updated October 9th, 2018. Accessed on January 20th, 2021. https://www.rcinet.ca/en/2018/10/05/history-canada-oct-5-1944-rcaf-downs-the-first-german-jet/

River, Charles Editors. The Tuskegee Airmen: The History and Legacy of America’s First Black Fighter Pilots in World War II.  Edited by Charles Rivers Editors, 2020.

“Training, CAF Rise Above” Accessed on January 18th, 2021. https://cafriseabove.org/the-tuskgee-airmen/tuskgee-airmen-history/training. 

“Tuskegee Airmen”.HistoryChannel.com.Last Updated January 16th, 2020. Accessed on December 13th, 2020.https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/tuskegee-airmen

The Navajo Code from World War Two: Was it Unbreakable?

The Navajo Code, which was used during the Second World War, has become one of the most famous military codes of all time. The code was developed in 1942 for use by the United States Marine Corps. This code was complex and sophisticated which made it perfect for military use. The Navajo Code’s complexity made it different from other Native American military codes used at the time or in World War I. The code was never broken but there was a close call during World War II. It achieved some important successes during the conflict, and became invaluable to the U.S. Marines and helped baffle the Japanese military.

Daniel Boustead explains.

Navajo code talkers. Saipan, Northern Mariana Islands, June 1944.

The Japanese Military had cracked every code the United States had used through 1942(1). The Marines in charge of communications were getting skittish([1]).  There was an imminent need for an unbreakable code!  Civil Engineer Philip Johnston, who had spent time on the Navajo Reservation came up with the idea of using the Navajo language (which was unwritten and understood only by those who lived with the Navajos) as the basis for an unbreakable code([2]).  Philip Johnston presented the idea to the U.S. Marine Corps ‘top brass’ and they decided to implement the idea right away(2). Communications officer Major James E. Jones, Major General Clayton B. Vogel (commander of Amphibious Corps, Pacific Fleet), and Commandant Thomas Holcomb were responsible for launching and recruiting the men who became code talkers(3). These men agreed on the need for the maximum secrecy of the program([3]). 

In February, 1942 at Camp Elliot, Vogel and Jones witnessed and ran a test experiment with Navajo men(3). This test experiment involved the Navajo men giving Navajo words to military terms in the period of an hour(3). Jones and Vogel also witnessed Navajo and Marine communications men transmitting several messages resembling in style and content the military messages that would be used in battle(3). At the time the standard used code was the “Shackle” code, which was written in English, encoded via a coding machine, and sent(3). Then the receiving end decoded the message, again via machine, and wrote it out English(3). It took an hour to transmit and receive the test messages using the “Shackle Code”(3). In contrast, when the same messages were transmitted and received in Navajo - with the Navajo men acting as human coding machines - it took only forty seconds for the information to be transmitted accurately(3). The test experiment was a success and Vogel agreed to launch a pilot, but due to the secrecy of the program it was decided to limit the trial program to 29 Navajo men(3). From  July 1942 to September 1942, 29 Navajo men from Platoon 382 helped invent and develop the Navajo Code([4]). The 29 Navajo men of Platoon 382 asked three Navajo speaking military men named Felix Yazzie, Ross Haskie, and Wilson Price to help them work on the Navajo Code([5]).  Navajo Code Talker Chester Nez said of the addition of  these three men “I don’t know why historians insist on separating them from the original twenty-nine. For me, it was the original thirty-two. They deserved credit for the code just as much as any of us did”(5). 

A unique code

The Navajo Code differed from other Native American Codes used in the past, in that the Navajo resisted adopting English words and folding them into the Navajo language like telephone and radio([6]).  The Navajo instead made up their own words for such inventions such as telephone and radio and thus keeping their language free from outside influence([7]). A person who is not Navajo finds it difficult to hear Navajo words properly, virtually impossible for him to reproduce the words, and nearly impossible to even pronounce even one word of Navajo if they are not used to hearing the sounds(6). Furthermore, as future Navajo Code Talker Sam Tso said “My language, my Navajo language, does not have an alphabet. we cannot write down our language, and we cannot read it. So, when they invented this code they used the English alphabet and they gave a certain word, to the ABC’s there and then as I looked at it and found out they have divided all those ABC’s according to the animals that lived in the water, travel on the water, that flew in the air, and those animals that live on the land. So, they divided into three parts”([8]). 

There were two types of Navajo code developed by the original Navajo Code Talkers(9). The first was the Type 1 code, which consisted of 26 Navajo terms that stood for individual English letters that could be used to spell out a word(9). For instance, the Navajo word for “ant”, in Navajo wo-la-chee, was used to represent the letter “a” in English([9].) Also, the original Navajo Code Talkers developed the Type 2 Navajo Code which contained words that could be translated from English into Navajo and included a dictionary (9).  For example, in the Type 2 Navajo Code there was no existing word for “submarine”, so the Navajo Code Talkers agreed to use the term besh-lo, which translates to “iron fish”(9).

In contrast, during World War I, Choctaw and Comanche soldiers transmitted messages in their complex language to stymie the Germans, which was by no means a code (6).The Choctaw and Comanche were used on a limited basis during World War I(6).  It was after World War I had ended that the Germans discovered which native languages had been employed by sending “tourists”, “scholars”, and “anthropologists” to learn the languages of various Native American tribes (6). Fortunately, the Navajo were not visited by these Germans spies(6). This prevented the secrets of the Navajo language from being passed on to Nazi Germany’s ally, Imperial Japan. This allowed the then secret language of Navajo to be used in developing an unbreakable code(6). Also, the Navajo Code contained 642 words or terms in their dictionary([10].)  By comparison the World War II-era Comanche Code Talkers only had 250 terms or 250 words and the primitive World War I era- Choctaw speaking experiment had only 20 terms or 20 words([11] ).  The Comanche Code Talkers served in Europe against the Third Reich ([12]).

Japanese code cracking efforts

A Japanese interrogator named Goon, interrogated a captured Navajo prisoner named Joe Kieyoomia (who had the survived the 1942 Bataan Death March) and came to the conclusion that the Code had something to do with the Navajo language([13]). Joe Kieyoomia, despite being brutally abused by his Japanese captors, never gave away any of the Navajo Code secrets(13). The Japanese Chief of Intelligence. Lieutenant General Seizo Arisue, said that while he was able to decipher the code used by the U.S. Army and the U.S.  Army Air Corps, he was never able to crack the Navajo Code ([14]). In the aftermath of World War II, the  Fuji Evening, a Tokyo newspaper, stated “If the Japanese Imperial Intelligence Team could have decoded the Navajo messages.. the history of the Pacific War might have turned out completely different”([15]). This shows the effectiveness in secrecy  surrounding the Navajo Code. 

The Navajo Code also had some important successes on the battlefields of the Pacific during World War II. During the Guadalcanal campaign, Navajo Code Talker Chester Nez and his friend Roy destroyed a Japanese machine gun position using the power of the Navajo Code to order an artillery strike to destroy it([16]). In the Battle of Iwo Jima, from February 1945 to March 1945, signal officer Major Howard Connor of the 5th Marine Division, said “Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima”(14). Signal officer Howard Conner had six Navajo Code Talkers with him and during the first two days of the battle of Iwo Jima from February 1945 they sent over 800 messages, all without error(14).  One of the final transmissions of World War II were American scientists’ observations of the August 9, 1945 atomic bombing of Nagasaki and it was sent back via the Navajo Code(15).

In retrospect

The Navajo Code had everlasting fame as a military code. This code that was developed for the Marine Corps served with success from 1942 to 1945.  The complex and thoroughly detailed nature of the Navajo Code made it perfect for military use and was different from other Native American codes. Except for a close call, the Code was never broken. The Navajo Code was truly unbreakable!

Now, read Daniel’s article on “Did World War Two Japanese Kamikaze Attacks have more Impact than Nazi V-2 Rockets?” here.

[1] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Foreword by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one  of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII.  New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 93. 

[2] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII.  New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 90. 

[3] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United Sates Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The First and only memoir by one of the  original Navajo code talkers of WWII.  New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 92. 

[4] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 101-102. 

[5] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII.  New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 109.

[6] Avila, Judith and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The First and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber.  2011. 91. 

[7] Avila, Judith  Schiess and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011.  91-92. 

[8] Navajo code talkers of World War II: Journey of Remembrance. Dreamscape-Contemporary Learning Systems. Starbright Media Corporation production. 2018. 

[9] “American Indian  Code Talkers, The National WWII Museum-New Orleans”.  December 12th, 2020. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/american-indian-code-talkers . 

[10] Avila, Judith Schiess and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff, United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and  only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 273-291. 

[11] Greenspan, Jesse. “How Native American Code Talkers Pioneered a  Type of Military Intelligence”. Updated:  November 11th, 2020. History Channel.  Accessed January 1st, 2021. https://www.history/com/news/world-war-is-native-american-code-talkers . 

[12] McIntyre, Cindy. “Comanche language helped win World War II”. Last Modified November 14th, 2017. United States Army. Accessed on January 3rd, 2021. https://www.army.mil/article/178195/comanche_language_helped_win_world_war_ii . 

[13] Avila, Judith Schiess and Nez, Chester.  Forward by Bingaman, Jeff, United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers.  New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 207-208. 

[14] “Navajo Code Talkers-World War II Fact Sheet, Naval History and Heritage Command”.  December  7th, 2020. https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/code-talkers.html . 

[15] Avila, Judith Schiess and Nez, Chester. Foreword by Bingaman, Jeff, United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the of the original code talkers. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 215. 

[16] Avila, Judith Schiess, and Nez, Chester. Forward by Bingaman, Jeff, United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The first and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 133. 

References

“American Indian Code Talkers, The National WWII Museum-New Orleans” December 12th, 2020. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/american-indian-code-talkers.

Avila, Judith, and Nez, Chester. Foreword by Bingaman, Jeff, United States Senator from New Mexico. Code Talker: The First and only memoir by one of the original Navajo code talkers of WWII. New York: New York. Dutton Caliber. 2011. 

Greenspan, Jesse. “How Native American Code Talkers Pioneered a New Type of Military Intelligence”. History Channel.  Updated: November 11th, 2020. Accessed on January 1st, 2021. https://www.history/com/news/world-war-is-native-american-code-talkers.

McIntyre, Cindy. “Comanche language helped win World War II”. Last Modified November 14th, 2017. United States Army.Accessed January 3rd, 2021. https://www/army.mil/article/178195/comache_language_helped_win_world_war_ii

Navajo Code talkers of World War II: Journey of Remembrance. Dreamscape-Contemporary Learning Systems. Starbright Media Corporation. 2018.

“Navajo Code Talkers-World War II Fact Sheet, Naval History and Heritage Command”.  December 7th, 2020. https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/code-talkers.html

Visiting families who Escaped the Nazis: Life as a British National Health Service Worker

From escaping burning hospitals to visiting families who escaped from the Nazis, John Rooney has met extraordinary people throughout his career with the British National Health Service (NHS). Starting as a student at 19 years old, he still works there over 50 years later. Here, Alice Cullinane explains John Rooney’s story.

An engraving of Ely House in London, including St. Etheldreda's chapel, which was visited by John Rooney to find a patient in more recent times. Engraving by William Henry Prior and based on a 1772 drawing.

John lived in the grounds of Friern Hospital, a psychiatric hospital close to Colney Hatch in London. During an outbreak of flames, he had to run into the burning hospital, leaving his two young children at home. He recalls the experience being "really surreal…the corridor was just roaring in flames." People were "just wandering around in daze", with there being no organized plan. Fires in the hospital often were caused by patients smoking in places they should not be. However, the fire’s cause was vague due to beliefs of “an arsonist in that part of London.” Friern Hospital had the longest corridor in Europe and contained in-mates such as Aaron Kosminski, Jack the Ripper suspect,  alongside railway rapist and killer John Duffy. (1) The Guardian newspaper published an article which blasted the British mental hospital in 1965. The grimness of buildings, the size of the wards, the problem with staff recruitment and the pressure of work were all criticized. Due to multiple reasons, it was decided in 1989 that the hospital should close, with patients reintegrated into the community where possible. (2)

The NHS worker remembers going to a central London church to find a patient. "The church had a crypt below, and it was like another world - completely dimly lit, and the whole floor was just a sea of people." The church was St. Etheldreda's Church in Holborn, London, the oldest Catholic Church in England. In 1925, the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments scheduled St Etheldreda’s as an ancient monument, and worthy of preservation. During the German Bombing Blitz, St Etheldreda’s was hit by many explosions, with the WW2 bomb damage taking seven years to repair. (3) John remembers everybody in the crypt was lying down, “with alcohol, drug problems.”

Eerie events and Nazi Germany Survivors 

John also worked at Brookwood Hospital in Surrey, south-east England, known as the second ‘county Asylum.’ While working at the hospital, he was sent through the fields, to “help them get a dead patient out of the canal.” The hospital had a dairy, cobblers, sewage farm and chapel, located near the Basingstoke Canal. John remembers the patients face, “covered in green weed” and as a late teenage student, found the experience “very dramatic…like something out a horror film.” Patients were admitted to the hospital for various reasons; including Ethel Mary Short, taken in due to 'puberty' and Mary Jane Perry, due to a 'disappointment in love.' (4)

Alongside eerie events, the 72-year-old also visited patients with surprising and shocking stories. “There was an elderly Jewish lady who lived in one of the really upmarket areas of London. She escaped the Nazis' because her husband was tall and blonde - even though her husband was Jewish." The stereotype of a Jews’ appearance was ‘red hair’, as ‘red hair is commonly a recessive trait’, and more represented in ‘endogamous populations.’ (5) The Nazis’ saw Jews as a danger to the ‘Aryan race’, and were to be ‘removed from Central Europe, through expulsion, enslavement, starvation and extermination.’ (6) The couple, fortunately, escaped their death from the Nazis. “When they got stopped at the border, they (were) asked if they were Jewish. Her husband said to the guard, ‘do I look like a Jew?’, and they let them through, and they lived.” There were many methods to help the immigration of Jews, such as ‘Kindertransport’, which rescued nearly 10 000 children from Nazi Germany. The British government allowed Jewish children to immigrate without visas, but sadly, the children were forced to leave their parents. (7) 

John has also noticed the staffing change in the NHS, “people nowadays say they are short-staffed, but they have no idea what really short-staffed is." John was by himself in a ward with 126 patients; however maintaining a positive attitude, he said, "you just do what you can." John loves that "there are so many different things you can do…the NHS is very interesting." He has a great passion working for the NHS, finding it “satisfying because I believe in what I do.” From working in the hospital that housed Jack the Ripper, to visiting those who lived to tell their phenomenal story, John has many more tales to tell!

Now, you read Alice’s article about growing up in post World War Two Liverpool here.

References

1-     Wikipedia- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friern_Hospital#National_Health_Service

2-     https://ezitis.myzen.co.uk/friern.html

3-     http://www.stetheldreda.com/index.php/history-of-st-etheldredas/

4-     https://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/health/historical-archives-surrey-mental-hospital-9382714

5-     https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Jews#Physical_features

6-     https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_race

7-     https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews_escaping_from_German-occupied_Europe_to_the_United_Kingdom

A Maverick in 1920s London: Kate Meyrick

The booming 1920s were a decade of great change in many countries. Following the pain of World War I, many experienced happier times. Here, Tom Daly explains the story of a woman who owned nightclubs in 1920s London that were attended by some of the most famous in society.

Kate Meyrick in the 1920s. Available here.

The ‘roaring ‘20s’ is sometimes seen as a uniquely American phenomenon, while Europe emerged gingerly from a catastrophic war that had torn the continent apart. Yet the glamour of New York and Chicago was still matched by some of Europe’s more prosperous cities in the 1920s. Paris was home to a lively jazz scene, Berlin developed a reputation as a wonderfully decadent and sexually liberated city, and London became a hub for hedonism and indulgence among disillusioned war veterans and the more optimistic generation that came after them. At the center of London’s nightlife was a small Irish woman who ran numerous successful nightclubs, flaunted her wealth and celebrity in front of an incensed British Home Secretary, and who was mother to eight children. Her name was Kate Meyrick.

Meyrick was unabashedly outrageous. After living a relatively privileged life until her marriage fell apart in 1919, she threw herself in to the murky world of London’s emerging nightclub scene and established herself as its Queen. Unbothered by scrapes with the law, fiercely protective of her workers and immensely proud of her establishments, she basked in the resentment of the British establishment yet still managed to maintain her family’s place at the top of society – two of her daughters would marry into the peerage. ‘Ma Meyrick’ was ambitious, flamboyant and engaging. In 1920s London, that made her exactly the type of person who could make a success of themselves.

Background

Kate Meyrick was born Kate Evelyn Nason on August 7, 1875 in Dun Laoghaire, which was then called Kingstown, near Dublin. Her father, John, was a wealthy doctor but tragically died when Kate was just one. Her mother, Sarah, found a second husband in a Lancashire clergyman and took her two children with her to England, but died herself when Kate was just seven. Now orphans, Kate and her older sister Ethel moved back to Dublin to brought up by their grandmother. She attended Alexandra College as a teenager and showed early signs of her disregard for normal conventions, claiming that she was the first woman to ride a bike in Dublin. 

Kate grew into a petite young woman with a slender frame and striking dark features, and when she was 19 she married Ferdinand Meyrick, who like her father was a doctor. The couple moved to Hampshire in southern England and settled into a comfortable existence where they could afford to send all of their eight children to elite private schools. Luckily for the Meyricks their sons were not old enough to fight in the First World War but it was still a time of turbulence for Kate, who filed for divorce from Ferdinand in 1910 but was reconciled with him until 1919. Though they separated in 1919, they never actually got divorced.

Rise in London

With three sons at Harrow and three daughters at Roedean, two of Britain’s most elite schools, the newly single Meyrick was facing an uphill battle to fund her children’s education. So, she moved to London and set about amassing her own fortune. In April 1919 she bought a share in Dalton’s, a nightclub in Leicester Square owned by George Dalton Murray, who quickly spotted her potential and employed Meyrick as the club’s manager. Under her management Dalton’s developed a reputation as a brothel with a more friendly touch for troubled young war veterans seeking sex and companionship. This was exactly the case Meyrick made when the club was raided by police in 1920, as she protested in court that the women she employed offered comfort to disillusioned and sometimes disfigured men who had returned from war. Her protests did not work, and she was forced to pay a fine and close the club.

If Meyrick was upset at the closing of Dalton’s, she didn’t show it – she was moving on to bigger things. In 1921 she opened the 43 club in Soho, which was to become one of 1920s London’s most notorious spots. Amongst a backdrop of jazz music and a never-ending supply of alcohol and drugs, it was in the 43 club that aristocracy mixed with the newly wealthy, where royalty mixed with up-and-coming gangsters. The club was frequented by royalty from all over Europe, as well as writers, politicians and even members of the IRA, who headed to the 43 for a night of celebration in November 1921 after stealing a huge haul of munitions from British troops in London. Welcoming this type of clientele did have its risks, but the Meyrick’s diminutive appearance disguised her phenomenal ability to control even the most violent men. Meyrick didn’t care who you were or what your background was – as long as you had a thick wallet and pristine clothes, you were welcome in her club.

Meyrick founded several other nightclubs in the decade, including the Silver Slipper, the Manhattan, and the Folies Bergeres, but it was the 43 that remained the jewel in her crown. Not only did she accumulate a fortune but she also became a celebrity, known affectionately as ‘Ma Meyrick’ and facilitating one of her daughters’ marriage to a Baron and the marriage of another daughter to an Earl.

Legal Troubles

Meyrick’s first brush with the law came in 1924, when she was sentenced to six months in prison for selling alcohol in the 43 club without a license. The sentence was protested by King Ferdinand of Romania and Crown Prince Gustaf of Sweden, showing the array of glamorous customers she could boast, but the pleas on her behalf fell on deaf ears and she was forced to serve her sentence. In all, she would serve five prison sentences over the next ten years, mostly for licensing offenses. 

That year, a new Home Secretary was appointed by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin. Sir William Joynson-Hicks was an austere man who, like many people of his generation who were children of the Victorian age, was worried about the morals of the country in the decadent 1920s. He developed an obsession with the nightclubs that had sprung up across London and was determined to harass them as far as the law would permit, but Kate Meyrick’s clubs, despite the handful of short sentences she served for licensing offenses, always seemed to be out of his reach. In March 1928, he finally found out why.

Sergeant George Goddard of the Metropolitan police had a modest salary but managed to live in a huge townhouse in London and drive two expensive cars. He also happened to be the man who was responsible for keeping an eye on the 43 club. Suspicious, Joynson-Hicks ordered a raid on the club without informing Goddard, and finally found what he was looking for. In 1929 Meyrick was convicted of bribing a police officer and sentenced to 15 months hard labor.

Final years and death

Meyrick was released from her sentence early in 1930, but the world she returned to was very different to the one she had left. While she was in prison, the Wall Street Crash had tanked the global economy and effectively ended London’s nightclub scene for the time being. Struggling to attract customers and facing a police force that had been cleaned up in the fallout of the Goddard affair, Meyrick got herself in more trouble and returned to prison in 1931. During this sentence she started writing her memoirs, Secrets of the 43, but it was banned almost as soon as it was published in 1933. Too many powerful people had a distinct interest in not having their nightclub antics in the 1920s being common knowledge.  

Not that this censorship ever bothered Meyrick – she was already dead. Her years of fast living had left her frail and she contracted pneumonia during her final stint in prison. She died in London on January 19, 1933 at the age of 57 and was buried in Kensal Rise, London. Her funeral was attended by all of her children and even her estranged husband, who appeared inconsolable during the service.

The story of Kate Meyrick was not a rags-to-riches story, yet it was still one of a woman defying the odds. A single mother in her mid-40s, she could have been forgiven for feeling sorry for herself and devoting her energy to her children. She did devote her energy to her children in a way – she always maintained that paying school fees was the only reason she had gone into the nightclub business – but she had certainly made something of herself in the process. She was shrewd and disdainful of convention, perfectly encapsulating the era she operated in, and a character so colorful and extraordinary as her deserves to be remembered.

Now, you can also read Tom’s articles on the Princess Alice Disaster on London’s River Thames here, 14th century French female pirate Jeanne de Clisson here, and why Tom loves history here.

Finally, read more from Tom at the Ministry of History here.

The 1950s Christmas: The Christmas that Became the Future

There have been few periods in human history that have brought about as major changes as the mid-20th century. A big change that was brought about during this time was how we have come to celebrate the Christmas holiday. Here, Amanda L. Walton looks at a 1950s Christmas and its parallels to a modern Christmas.

President John F. Kennedy and his wife Jackie at the White House in December 1962. Many of the Christmas practices of the 1960s - and to the present day - came from the 1950s.

The 1950s were a time of pride within the American culture. The space race was starting, and World War II had just ended. Families were prospering in ways that had not been possible before. There was enough food on the tables, people could afford cozy neat homes in residential neighborhoods, shopping became a popular pastime of American housewives, and middle-class families were able to live better than ever before (or since). 

The extra money that people had brought about a new level of consumerism that marked the second transitional change in the way that we celebrate Christmas. In her book, Midcentury Christmas: Holiday Fads, Fancies, and Fun from 1945 to 1970, Sarah Archer argues that the mid-20th century was the second time that Christmas has changed. She argues that first it was the Victorian Era with the myth of Santa Claus and then the mid-20th century which created the desire for the cozy Christmas that is still enjoyed today.

A Look at Mid-20th Century Christmas Traditions

Many of the Christmas traditions that continue to be practiced today originated in the mid-20th century. Below are a few that are notable.

Christmas Ornaments 

The mass production of Christmas ornaments was first seen with Shiny Brite (and yes, I have some of these from a local thrift store score!). These are popular collector items today and something that as a collector myself I have always been excited to obtain. During the 1930s all of the ornaments that were purchased were hand blown in Germany. The process of mass production allowed for ornaments to be affordable and obtainable by all families. 

The Tinsel Tree

I have to admit that I have a weakness for tinsel trees. My husband bought me one for our third Christmas in our new home. We plan to purchase a new one complete with a spinning base (ours only has the color wheel and a recent Rainbow Light that we picked up at an antique shop for $10) when we purchase our dream mid-20th century home that we are currently in the market for. The tinsel tree offered a space-age adaptation to an old classic and has since become the main defining decoration of the mid-20th century.

Crafting was Popular

Magazines at the time show all of the unique crafts that women could make within their own homes. A lot of the crafts featured used aluminum foil as it was being heavily produced post-war. Women were encouraged to grab their roll of aluminum foil through advertisements and craft tutorials in magazines. 

The Mass Consumerism of the Mid-20th Century

One of the things that changed drastically during the mid-20th century was consumerism. This is especially true when it comes to the Christmas season. Advertisements flooded newspapers and magazines with all of the latest gadgets that men, women, and children needed for the holiday.

Men were encouraged to spoil their wives with a practical gift that would make their life easier like the folding table and chairs or serving carts from Cosco, as well as new gadgets like electric knives or the Dishmaster (a unique contraption that was made to help make doing dishes easier). One unique ad that ran was for the Westinghouse Sun Lamp in the LIFE Magazine published on December 8, 1952. The ad shows a very tanned woman with her husband and a pale jealous wife in the in the background with the caption “Give June a Tan for Christmas.”

Women were encouraged to buy men gifts that would help them relax after their hard day at work, like El Producto Cigars and small three band portable radios. Advertisements also showed men who were overly excited receiving clothing, often clothes that were appropriate for the office. (This shows the desire that people had to obtain office jobs as they were considered to be the ultimate positions for people.)

Parents were encouraged to buy children the latest toys whether they be dolls or science kits. Younger children would squeal with delight for a rocking horse and Tinker Toys. Little girls dreamed of Barbies, Russian nesting dolls, Easy Bake Ovens, and Troll dolls. Little boys loved Lego, Hot Wheels, toy soldiers, and frisbees. All children became excited over Silly Putty, Slinky, Play-doh, and Mr. Potato Head. Family games also became popular, with gifts including Tripoley, Sorry, Scrabble, Monopoly, and Twister.

The middle class was booming at this time. Factory workers and industrial laborers could afford to live in suburban neighborhoods in newly built homes. They could afford to spend extra money on the luxuries that made life easier and more interesting. This led to the desire to provide things and experiences for their children that their own parents (raising them during the Great Depression) could not have done. Entertaining was also becoming popular at this time.

The Mid-20th Century Menu

One of the things that always shocks me are the recipes that I see featured in mid-20th century cookbooks. Although admittedly I am a picky eater, I have found that many of these foods seem unappetizing on all levels. Dishes that involve savory gelatin or extra layers of mayonnaise seem unhealthy as well. One notable advertisement featured an Oscar Meyer tree which was a cone with broccoli and assorted cocktail weenies, hot dogs, and other processed meat items decorating the tree.

Families began opening their homes to family and friends during the holiday as well. The mid-20th century was the beginning of holiday parties and the desire to entertain one another. This led to some interesting party friendly recipes that were meant to wow your guests. Holiday dinners were being created to offer a full family experience. At the time, food culture was also being written about and talked about in ways that people no longer look at it.

In many forms of media, including newspapers and magazines, Christmas dinners were advertised, and menus were created. Food Timeline posted a number of holiday menus and posted them on their website. The 1947 White House Christmas dinner was a simple menu that was posted in The New York Times. The journalist was sure to point out that the foods that were used followed the National Food Conservation Program, except the bread and butter. The meal included bread rolls, butter, curled celery, assorted olives, roast turkey, chestnut dressing, giblet gravy, cranberry jelly, mashed potatoes, asparagus, plum pudding, molded ring with fruit, candy, nuts, and coffee.

As a mid-20th century historian, I have become obsessed with the time period. Many of the Christmas décor items and traditions that I celebrate were from this time period. I am sure that you have seen some of your traditions or favorite celebrations of Christmas included as well.

What do you think of a 1950s Christmas? Let us know below.

Now you can read Amanda’s article on US Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg here.

References

“19 Mid-Century Modern Christmas Décor Ideas,” Curated Interior. https://curatedinterior.com/mid-century-modern-christmas-decor/

“26 Hilarious Christmas Ads from LIFE Magazine in the 1950s,” Vintage Everyday. December 8, 2018. https://www.vintag.es/2018/12/1950s-life-magazine-chirstmas-ads.html.

Africca Sanson. “9 Retro Holiday Recipes That Need to Make a Comeback,” Country Living. December 4, 2017. https://www.countryliving.como/food-drinks/g5028/vintage-holiday-recipes/.

Allison Meier. “Christmas at Midcentury, When Aluminum Trees Replaced Victorian Evergreens,” Hyper Allergic. December 12, 2016. https://hyperallergic.com/346592/midcentury-Christmas/.

Anna Stockwell. “A Retro-Classic Christmas Dinner Menu,” Epicurious. December 4, 2017. https://epicurious.com/expert-advice/a-retro-classic-christmas-dinner-menu-article.

Audrey W. (Arcadia Staff). “The Hidden History of 7 Popular Toys from the 20th Century,” Arcadia Publishing.https://www.arcadiapublishing.com/Navigation/Community/Arcadia-and-THP-Blog/December-2018/The-Hidden-History-of-7-Popular-Toys-from-the-20th.

Cathy Salter. “Memoirs are Made for Misty Mornings,” The Columbia Daily Tribune. January 9, 2017. https://coulmbiatribune.com/890e7cda-1427-541c-a198-7e4cb4904b46.html.

Courtney Iseman. “What Christmas Looked Like (And Tasted!) Like the Year You Were Born,” Delish. December 16, 2019. https://www.delish.com/food/g30196945/what-christmas-looked-like-the-year-you-were-born/.

Emily VanDerWerff. “Christmas in the Space Age: Looking Back at the Wild, Weird Designs of Mid-20th Century Holidays.” Vox. November 24, 2017. https://www.vox.com/culture/2016/11/25/13697888/christmas-decorations-vintage-midcentury-interview.

“Historic American Christmas Dinner Menus,” Food Timeline. www.foodtimeline.org/christmasmenu.html.

Jenny James. “How to Nail Your Mid Century Christmas Décor,” Atomic Ranch. December 3, 2018. https://www.atomic-ranrch.com/architecture-design/house-tours/how-to-nail-your-mid-century-decor/.

Jenny Xie. “5 Fond Memories of Mid Century Christmas Design and Décor,” Curbed. December 12, 2016. https://archive.currbed.com/2016/12/21/14027930/midcentury-christmas-decor-design.

Joy Wallace Dickinson. “Space Age Glitter Lit Up Midcentury Christmas,” Orlando Sentinal. December 18, 2016. https://www.orlandosentinal.com/entertainment/os-joy-wallace-dickinson01218-2016127-col.

Laurie Wilson. “24 Vintage Christmas Dinner Recipes for Partying Like It’s 1899,” Eat This. November 19, 2018. https://www.eatthis.com/vintage-christmas-dinner-dishes-dont-eat-anymore/.

Linda Ferguson. “Mid-20th Century Christmas Decorations, Part 1,” Cool Old Stuff. http://www.coololdstuff.com/christmas1.html.

Linda Ferguson. “Mid-20th Century Christmas Decorations, Part 2,” Cool Old Stuff. http://www.coololdstuff.com/christmas2.html.

Lisa Kaminski. “What Christmas Looked Like the Year You Were Born,” Taste of Home. https://www.tasteofhome.com/collection/what-christmas-looked-like-the-year-you-were-born/.

“Most Popular Toys of the Last 100 Years,” Forbes. December 2, 2005. https://www.forbes.com/2005/12/01/mattel-hasbro-toys-cx_lh_1202feat_ls.html?sh=36057274625d.

Sarah Archer. Midcentury Christmas: Holiday Fads, Fancies, and Fun from 1945-1970. Woodstock, Vermont: The Countryman Press, 2016.

Skyler Hanrath. “These Were the Most Popular Toys in Each Decade of the 20th Century,” Ranker. March 8, 2018. https://www.ranker.com/list/most-popular-toys-in-the-20th-century/skyler-hanrath.

Tara Besore. “Here’s Everything You Need for a Mid-Century Modern Christmas,” Hammer and a Headband. November 28. 2018. https://www.hammerandaheadband.com/a-mid-century-modern-style-christmas/.

Taylor Murphy. “60 Vintage Christmas Dishes Worth Trying Today,” Taste of Home. October 10, 2019. https://tasteofhome.com/collection/vintage-christmas-recipes/.

America’s 1957 Civil Rights Act: Modern Reconstruction?

The 1957 Civil Rights Act in the US is often seen as not being a great success. However, here James Hernandez argues that the Act was very important as it led the way to the greater changes of the 1960s and beyond - it could even be seen as the start of ‘Modern Reconstruction’.

Lyndon B. Johnson (left) and Richard Russell (right) in 1963. The two Democrats were on opposing sides in the argument around the 1957 Civil Rights Act.

Arguably the fountainhead for the modern civil rights movement, the 1957 Civil Rights Act is seemingly excluded from its rightful place in mainstream history as it never fully delivered its promised potential. But nonetheless, the legislation should be celebrated for its symbolic significance as it demonstrated a growing acceptance towards the Civil Rights Movement and the federal government’s willingness to intervene with state governments to ensure African-Americans were provided with equal extents of the law. As the advancement of Civil Rights remains pertinent in American society today, the beginning of what will soon be widely recognized as Modern Reconstruction originates from the forgotten act as it established the fundamental basis for African-American voter protection and influenced the creation of President Johnson’s landmark Civil Rights agenda. 

1950s America

America was in dire need of a societal evaluation as the country fell deeper into the polarizing void that divided the nation over the issue of segregation during the 1950s. The claimed “free world” of the United States was contradicted by racial injustices present in the nation and was heavily criticized by the Eastern Bloc in the Cold War. Despite Brown v. Board delivering a much needed ruling in favor of desegregation and generating invaluable optimism to what would become the Civil Rights Movement, the new legislation was not strong enough to supersede the actions of pro-segregationist state governments that worked to uphold de facto segregation practices within the capacity of state law. The South became the epicenter for racial conflict as Southern Dixiecrats continually condoned the violent behavior of white segregationists. President Eisenhower soon recognized the growing division of the country and finally decided to put his foot down on the issue along with the help of Attorney General Herbert Brownell.

President Eisenhower’s powerful commitment to social justice played a key role in influencing and supporting Brownell’s legislative proposal that was soon introduced in the House on March 11, 1956 (H.R. 6127). The proposed law aimed to extend the security of African-American voting rights under the 15th Amendment as only 20% of the population was registered to vote as discriminatory provisions such as literacy tests were still ubiquitous in the South. Other key components included the implementation of a Civil Rights Commission to further analyze investigations regarding the denial of rights to minorities, the creation of an assistant attorney general position specifically to aid civil rights in the Department of Justice, the expansion of federal authority to interfere with state laws to ensure equal rights were being properly secured by states, and the enactment of further provisions that would protect African-Americans from unfair circumstances in court.

Lyndon B. Johnson’s role

Though the bill had received support from both parties, the passage of the proposed legislation carried the divisive potential to tear apart the Democratic Party. The legislation found an unlikely supporter in Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson as he chose to lead passage efforts to maintain stability within his party and to garner support for his future presidential campaign. Johnson’s support was quite surprising considering the fact that he had voted against civil rights legislation only a year before. Whether he truly had a change of heart regarding the issue or if his intentions were really to advance his political career, Johnson would go on to champion civil rights in his future presidency.

Senator Richard Russell of Georgia led Southern Democratic opposition to the legislation as Johnson gained momentum. Russell famously claimed that the bill would create “unspeakable confusion, bitterness and bloodshed in a great section of our common country” and was essentially “a potential instrument of tyranny and persecution” when referring to Part III of the bill which looked to extend federal authority. Russell cited a parallel between the proposition and the failed Civil Rights Act of 1866 which authorized the federal government’s usage of armed forces in order to ensure the implementation of civil rights provisions, further insinuating the likelihood of violence occurring if the bill was enacted. Russell’s efforts proved effective as Johnson soon surrendered all hope of including an extension of federal powers in the bill. In spite of facing substantial revisions, and a record setting single-person filibuster by Dixiecrat Strom Thurmond, the act was finally signed into law by Eisenhower on September 9, 1957.

In perspective

The 1957 Civil Rights Act was nowhere near as effective as subsequent legislation but the newly created bill was a promising stepping-stone. It was the first civil rights legislation put into law since Reconstruction and it set the stage for what would soon become one of the most influential reform eras in history - the 1960s. Despite historians citing the bill as a failure, the act should be recognized as the official beginning of the modern Civil Rights Movement. The movement would not have properly progressed without the federal embracement achieved through the 1957 act and further racial oppression would have resulted. If it were not for Martin Luther King Jr.’s untimely assassination, Johnson’s unexpected decision to not seek re-election, and the government diverting a large portion of their attention towards the escalating tensions of the Vietnam War in 1968, the Civil Rights Movement would have greatly progressed through the 1970s and 1980s and racial equality would have been more widely prevalent. Moreover, the Civil Rights Act of 1957 would have inevitably fulfilled its potential and obtained its rightful place in American history.

What do you think of the 1957 Civil Rights Act? Let us know below.

How did we get Modern Comic Book Characters? The Story of Dick Tracy and the Shadow

Many of the most successful movies each year are based on comic book characters, such as Superman and Batman. But what was the influence for modern comic book characters? Here, Daniel Boustead explains how it was the influence of the pioneering characters of Dick Tracy and the Shadow.

Promotional Image for the CBS Radio series The Detective Story Hour. The program included the Shadow.

The Comic and Pulp Magazine characters in the 1920s were stale and lacked depth. The Shadow, which was first a radio show, then a Pulp Magazine Novels star helped introduce innovations that are still found in comics to this day. The Dick Tracy comics also provided succeeding comics with some important literary character traits. The pioneering work of Dick Tracy and the Shadow creators would influence the work of Detective Comics (DC) and Marvel Comics. Dick Tracy and the Shadow were the epitome of comics because they served as the catalyst and provided the parameters for so many comics to follow.

Comics in the 1920s

Zorro, which was created by Johnston McCulley for pulp magazine’s All-Story Weekly in August of 1919, followed the same plot, literary, character conventions, and character traits of the swashbuckling heroes of old like Robin Hood, Don Quixote, Scarlet Pimpernel, The Three Musketeers, and Cyrano de Bergerac([1]). The literary trope of a superhero leading a double life was established first in 1905 in the book The Scarlet Pimpernel, which was based off a 1903 play of that same name (9). Science Fiction character Buck Rogers, which was created by Phillip Francis Nowlan in August 1928 for pulp magazine Amazing Stories, followed the same literary, character, and plot devices that were found in works such as those by Jules Verne, Edgar Rice Rice Burroughs, and H.G. Wells ([2]). The big comic star of the day, Popeye the Sailor Man, which was created by E.C. Segar, and first appeared in the newspaper comics on January 17, 1929 was largely a cutesy, silly and innocent work ([3]). Had Dick Tracy and the Shadow not been created there would not be the comic book fan conventions, movies and multi million industry that we see now.

The Shadow

Dick Tracy and the Shadow introduced three important elements that are found in superhero comic book characters right to this day: sometimes superpowers, graphic violence, and grotesque villains.  This was not previously seen in Zorro, Buck Rogers, or Popeye. Also, these three elements (more often than not) dealt with earth-based subjects rather than what Buck Rogers’ interplanetary adventures covered.

The Shadow’s unique legacy in the history of comics is critical to understanding the development of comic characters to follow. The Shadow first appeared on the radio on August 2, 1930 on a program called Detective Story Hour and then appeared in pulp story magazine novel form in April 1931, with the very first story issue entitled The Living Shadow (4). This was written by Walter B. Gibson, who would use the pen name Maxwell Grant ([4]). In print, film, and radio, the Shadow’s consistent superpower is a master of disguise and stealth ([5]). In 1937 in the Shadow Radio Show (during its fourth season), the Shadow was given the power to “cloud men’s minds so they cannot see him” ([6]). The exact date the Shadow was given this superpower was September 26, 1937 (5).  In contrast, in pulp magazine’s novels the Shadow gets out of dangers by using his stealth, his .45 Caliber Pistols, and the occasional magic trick (6). In the radio version, his power to “cloud men’s minds so they cannot see him”, allows him to hypnotize people instantly so that he can move as an invisible shadow. The Shadow (in the radio version) can hypnotize people so they can forget things, and he can command them to perform certain acts. The Shadow used this power to force a criminal to write a detailed account of his past crimes. He accomplishes this task by using a fire opal ring known as a girasol (7). This enables him to focus his hypnotic abilities ([7]). The radio show Shadow’s introduction of his superpower in 1937 predated Superman, and in turn influenced the rise of Superman, who would first appear in comics on April 18, 1938([8]).

The Shadow radio show and pulp magazine novels also had graphic violence. The November, 1931 Shadow pulp magazine novel issue entitled “The Red Menace” contained a masked villain called The Red Envoy, who murdered everyone in his path to get secret plans for an aerial torpedo, before he is defeated by the Shadow (4). In one of the novels the villains used a device called the “Silent Death” which was an electric ray machine that could deal death on a massive scale (4). In the Shadow radio show entitled “Death from the Deep” (from 1937 to 1938 summer seasons) a villain named Vinton shoots around the inside of a Submarine thinking he has killed the Shadow but has no success because the Shadow is invisible (10).  The level of violence in the Shadow would influence future superhero comics to come.

Dick Tracy

Dick Tracy did not have any superpowers, but he was a master detective in the style of Sherlock Homes. Dick Tracy was created by Chester Gould and first appeared in the comic section of the Detroit newspaper Sunday Mirror on October 4, 1931 (11). 

The world of Dick Tracy was filled with graphic violence.  In the October 17, 1931 issue of Dick Tracy, Big Boy’s minions killed Dick Tracy’s girlfriend Tess Truehart’s father, Emil Truehart, in front of Dick Tracy and Tess Truehart during a robbery at the Truehart residence (12).  In 1934, villain Doc Hump experimented on humans and dogs by injecting them with rabies (13).  In the November 11, 1934 issue the villain Doc Hump planned to unleash a dog on a captured Dick Tracy only to have the dog turn on him (13). He tears his throat out, killing him instantly (13). On the May 21, 1935 issue Dick Tracy uses a hose to pump car exhaust fumes into a cave in order to flush out villains Cutie Diamond, Zora Arson, and her brother Boris Arson (14). Cutie Diamond and Zora Arson run out of the cave with their guns blazing - to which Dick Tracy and his partners killed them (14). Boris Arson hid in the cave behind a wall of stone and mud until Dick Tracy fired a machine gun into a hole in the cave where Boris Arson was, and the bullet caused a fatal wound in his bullet proof jacket, which killed him (14). In 1936, Chester Gould introduced the costumed criminals the Purple Cross Gang who committed many murders (15).  In 1937, the character of the Blank (real name Frank Redrum), whose face was shot off earlier, was cruel to criminals who rejected him simply because he was too ugly (15). The Blank would murder those that got in his way, tying criminals under a car so that they would die from carbon monoxide poisoning and throwing criminals out of a car going 50 miles per hour (15).  He also threw criminals out of an airplane while he laughed manically at their suffering and death as they crashed through a barn (15). 

Villains

The universe of Dick Tracy also had many grotesque villains. On February 25, 1932 the Dick Tracy comics introduced the disfigured villain of Broadway Bates with his pointed nose (16). The character would influence Batman’s the Penguin which first appeared in Batman comics in December 1941 (17). On May 7, 1934 Dick Tracy comics introduced the frightening character named Doc Hump (13). Doc Hump had a bald, humped shaped head and was an evil mad scientist who would influence the design of famous Superman villain Lex Luthor (15). Lex Luthor would first appear in the Superman comics in April, 1940 (18). On October 21, 1937 Dick Tracy comics introduced the first repulsive villain known as the Blank, because he had a semi-opaque cheesecloth to cover his face (19).  The Blank’s countenance would influence Batman super-villain Dr. Death, who would appear in the Batman comics in July 1939 (20). The Blank’s grotesque appearance would also influence the most famous Batman villain of all, the Joker, which first appeared in the Batman comics in April 1940(21). Dick Tracy’s villains influenced other comic writers to create their villains to look grotesque because it was artistically viable and commercially successful.

Legacy

On March 30th, 1939 Batman hit the newsstands, and it was heavily influenced by Dick Tracy and the Shadow (22). Batman co-creator Bill Finger said: “My first script was a take-off on a Shadow Story. I patterned my style of writing Batman after the Shadow” (23). On October 14, 1941 William Moulton Marston’s DC comic character Wonder Women appeared, which had plenty of graphic violence and grotesque villains (24).  Marvel Comic’s Spider Man hit the newsstands in August 1962 and was heavily influenced by Dick Tracy and the Shadow’s graphic violence and grotesque villains (25). In Spiderman, there is an ugly villain named the Chameleon (26).  The X-Men were also swayed by the legacy of Dick Tracy and the Shadow when it hit the newsstands in September 1963 (27). Magneto (appearing in X-Men) was very menacing in his appearance (28). 

The comics and pulp characters were old and hackneyed in the 1920s. The important innovations of the Shadow Radio Show and the Shadow Pulp Magazine Novels left a lasting legacy on comics.  The innovations of Dick Tracy also left a profound effect on comics as well. Dick Tracy and the Shadow would have a lasting legacy on D.C. Comics and Marvels Comics, and so many others to come. Dick Tracy and the Shadow were the comics to end all comics. 

What do you think of Dick Tracy and the Shadow? Let us know below.

Now you can read Daniel’s past article on whether World War Two Japanese Kamikaze attacks had more impact than Nazi V-2 rockets here.

[1] Zorro. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorro. 

[2] Buck Rodgers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_Rodgers 

[3] “Explore the History of Popeye”. https://popeye.com.  Accessed on October 23rd, 2020. http://popeye.com/timeline/

[4] Holt, Keith and Severin, Todd D. “The Shadow Mysterious Being of the Night”. The Shadow: Master of Darkness. October 23rd, 2020. https://www.shadowsanctum.net/history/articles/The_Shadow_Pulp_Years-Severin_Holt2.html . 

[5] The Shadow. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shadow . 

[6] “Radio History of the Shadow”. The Shadow: Master of Darkness. October 23rd, 2020. https://www.shadowsanctum.net/radio/radio.html . 

[7] “The Shadow”. www.internationalhero.co.uk. October 23rd, 2020. https://www.internationalhero.co.uk/s/shadpulp.htm . 

[8] Superman. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superman

9 The Scarlet Pimpernel. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scarlet_Pimpernel.

10 “Death from the Deep”. The Shadow: Master of Darkness. November 16th, 2020. https://www.shadowsanctum.net/radio/synopsis/ss-2.html

11 “Timeline-The Chester Gould Dick Tracy Museum”. The Dick Tracy Museum. November 9th,2020. https://www.dicktracymuseum.com/timeline-1 . 

12 Emil Truehart. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/Emil_Truehart . 

13 Doc Hump. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/Doc_Hump . 

14 Boris Arson. https://dickracy.fandom.com/wiki/Boris_Arson . 

15 Grand, Alex. “Chester Gould’s Dick Tracy and his 1930’s Era War on Crime”. Last Modified April 25th, 2020. Comic Book Historians. Accessed on November 15th, 2020. https://comicbookhistorians.com/dick-tracy-1930s-comic-milestones . 

16 Broadway Bates. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/Broadway_Bates . 

17 Penguin (Character). https://en.wikipedia.org/wikipedia/Penguin_(character)

18 Lex Luthor. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lex_Luthor . 

19 The Blank. https://dicktracy.fandom.com/wiki/The_Blank . 

20 Doctor Death. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Death_(character) . 

21 Joker (character). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joker_(character) . 

22 Batman. https://en.wikipedia.org/wikipedia/Batman .

23 Severin, Todd D. “The Shadow Strange Creature in Black the Comic Book Years”. The Shadow Master of Darkness. November 19th, 2020. https://www.sahdowsanctum.net/history/articles/The_Shadow_Comic_Years-Severin.html . 

24 Wonder Women. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder-Women . 

25 Spider-Man. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man.

26 Chameleon (Marvel Comics). https://en.wikpedia.org/wiki/Chamelon (Marvel Comics). 

27 X-Men. https://en.wikipeida.org/wiki/X-Men . 

28 Magneto (Marvel Comics). https://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Magneto_(Marvel Comics). 

The Myth and Reality of Santa Claus

The figure of Santa Claus has been increasingly commercialized in the 20th and 21st centuries. But who was the real Santa Claus? Daniel L. Smith gives his take here.

Daniel’s book on mid-19th century northern California is now available. Find our more here: Amazon US | Amazon UK

An early 20th century depiction of Santa Claus.

In present day America the day after Thanksgiving is traditionally spent hanging Christmas decorations and various lighting across the house and yard. These fun displays usually fit in the category of snowman, reindeer, or a big jolly old man with a white beard in a bright red suit with white fuzzy trim. We usually see images of this same person in stories or on the television magically hopping down chimneys and delivering gifts to sleeping families worldwide. This image has become something we’ve all been generationally born into, but where did this myth originate from? What is the truth behind this entire story?

The reality and the myth

“The real St. Nicholas lived from 270 to 342 and was known in his lifetime for fighting evil and promoting justice. He was credited with performing many miracles. His body was buried in the church in Myra, but in the 11th century pirates stole the bones and took them to Bari, Italy, where they supposedly are preserved in a Catholic church. About that time Nicholas also became a popular saint in Northern Europe. He was sometimes depicted with a staff, looking more like a Greek bishop.

The legend that has become the basis of the Santa Claus story is as follows.

A poor man had three daughters. Unable to give them dowries, he thought he would have to sell them into prostitution (something the extremely poor were sometimes forced into). Nicholas wanted to help but also keep his charity work secret. He went to their home one night but climbed on the roof when he found all the doors and windows locked. He dropped three bags of gold down the chimney, and the three young women had hung their stockings by the fire to dry. The gifts fell into the socks, and the tradition was off and running.

St. Nicholas Day, Dec. 6, is still celebrated in many countries, and often includes gifts for children and gift exchanges among adults. So, the real person who fought for social justice, elimination of poverty and protection of children has had his image corrupted by a friendly guy in a red suit who brings you generally more than you would ever want.[1]

But in the early days of Christianity, conspicuous consumption was not common among Christians. 

A Material Cause

During the days of Paul the Apostle, greed was an easy reality to observe. The rich get rich and the poor get poorer. Arguably materialism in our times today is the only way to prove any kind of “flaunting success.” Continuing to buy and accumulate “things” has become the way Americans prove our worth to others.[2]

Historian Adam English writes that, “Nearly everyone knows that Santa Claus -- the obese, old gent who squeezes himself down the chimney every Christmas Eve -- is the American alter ego of St. Nicholas. Slimmer and less overtly jolly, St. Nicholas roams about Western Europe showering children with presents on his traditional feast day of Dec. 6. In the Netherlands and parts of Germany, children expect a visit from a white-bearded, ecclesiastically garbed "Sinterklaas" (his Dutch name), who decides whether they have been naughty or nice before handing out treats from his sack.

Dutch and German immigrants brought St. Nicholas to America in the early 19th century, and he began a process of assimilation, trading in his bishop's miter and crosier for a fur-trimmed red suit and cap. The Santa we now know was the creation of poet Clement Clarke Moore (1779-1863), the author of "The Night Before Christmas"; cartoonist Thomas Nast; illustrators like N.C. Wyeth and Norman Rockwell; and the magazine ads for Coca-Cola painted by Haddon Simmons starting in 1931, in which Santa took a break from the arduousness of setting up junior's electric train by pausing to have a coke.”[3]

Christians and Santa Claus

So, here we are in 2020 and most of American society relishes in the contemporary version of St. Nick. One has got to wonder how Christians should feel about the secularized and materialistic view on Christmas Santa Claus?

Ken Ham, Director of the Creation Museum and bearer of 6 honorary university graduate degrees mentions, “The mythical Santa is clearly founded in a man who honored Jesus Christ with his life and his possessions. Nicholas gave freely of his riches to benefit those who were less fortunate than himself. This is clearly a fundamental Christian principle, as we see care for the poor proclaimed throughout Scripture (e.g. James 2:1–17).

Is that the same idea we see in the Santa Claus celebrated today? The popular song extols children to stop shouting, pouting, and crying in order to earn Santa’s favor and his gifts. This is clearly not the attitude that we see in the biblically motivated actions of the original St. Nick—and a far cry from a biblical attitude of raising children in the fear and admonition of the Lord.”[4]

Hope, Joy, Blessings

Of course discernment is the key here when it comes to a good old-fashioned secularized Christmas. Because even though Christ’s day has been cut down to a materialistic game of possessions, there are still hints scattered throughout the collage of the holidays. Bright stars, Gifts, Blessings of Joy and Hope. These are all principles of the day we know as Christmas. It is a day of blessing others. It is a day of healing and redemption. It is a day to reconnect and start fresh, knowing that there is divine light at the end of a dark road. Christmas is the day that mankind was gifted with the ultimate redemption on life by God Himself.

Other than the divinity of Jesus Christ, humanity has been blessed with the likes of the Apostles, the Christian Church, ministries of giving and selfless service, and much, much, more. Santa Claus, or St. Nick, was a man of Christ. He was known for much more than working with elves, magically transporting down chimneys, and riding a sleigh pulled by flying reindeer across the skyline. He was a man who knew how to live a life for Christ and serve the needs of humankind who ultimately needed it the most.
 

You can read a selection of Daniel’s past articles on: California in the US Civil War (here), Spanish Colonial Influence on Native Americans in Northern California (here), the collapse of the Spanish Armada in 1588 (here), early Christianity in Britain (here), the First Anglo-Dutch War (here), the 1918 Spanish Influenza outbreak (here), and an early European expedition to America (here).

Finally, Daniel Smith writes at complexamerica.org.

References

[1] Allen, Martha Sawyer. "What would St. Nick do? : St. Nicholas - the real guy - was known for his battles against evil and for justice and the downtrodden. Somehow over the centuries his image has been corrupted into that of Santa Claus, who has been called the patron saint of greed." Star Tribune [Minneapolis, MN] 4 Dec. 1999: 05B. Business Insights: Global. Web. 7 Dec. 2020.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Allen, Charlotte. "The Real Father Christmas." Wall Street Journal, Dec 06, 2012, Eastern edition.

[4] Ham, Ken. "Christians and Santa Claus: A Biblical View." Answers in Genesis. Last modified December 15, 2009. https://answersingenesis.org/jesus/birth/wintertime-worship-santa-claus-or-jesus-christ/.

Growing up in Post-World War Two Liverpool

World War Two had great impacts on so many people, but what were the impacts and memories of people after the war? In this memoir-based article, Alice Cullinane explains the experiences of her grandfather who grew up in Liverpool, England in the years after World War Two.

The impact of the Liverpool Blitz.

John Rooney was in his 50’s when he discovered his father’s codebreaking history at Bletchley Park, the famed code-breaking site in England. He was born just after the war in Liverpool - the “heaviest bombed area of the country” outside of London, which killed nearly 3,000 people. (1) From wearing gas masks that contained a ‘magic mineral’, to watching the Luftwaffe bomb the Liverpool docks, John has experienced life severely troubled by war. 

“We lived in big Victorian houses…quite run-down, but not derelict.” John was 1 of 12 children in his considerably large family, with siblings contributing towards the ‘Baby Boom’ era. In post-war Britain, the government built new schools and introduced other measures such as free school milk and child benefits to cater for the boomer generation. (2) Bombings destroyed thousands of homes, with Britain facing its worst housing shortage of the 20th century. Around 750,000 new homes were required in England and Wales in 1945 to provide all families with accommodation. (4) “Where we lived, there had only been a small number of bombings." However, on John's road, the bombings destroyed one house, leaving just "a heap of debris" with "no doors or windows." He remembers "my elder brother and I finding a lot of ruined houses…going in one once to be chased out by a family who lived in this ruined house."

Although the war ended before John’s life, it is undeniable that remnants lingered. He recalls having "two gas masks in the house, which we actually needed because my elder brother set the house on fire." His brother caused the house fire by "playing with matches", which he recalls finding very "exciting."

In 1939, the government issued 38 million gas masks to the public, with strict instructions - carry at all times. (5) However, by the beginning of 1940, almost no one bothered to take their gas mask with them; the government announced monthly gas mask inspections as a result. Fear hung around the use of gas, but the Germans never used it against the British in World War Two.  Local doctors noticed factory workers employed in making the masks were showing abnormally high numbers of deaths from cancer; they later discovered the gas mask filters contained Asbestos, consequently seen as the ‘magic’ mineral during much of the 20th century. (6)

Rationing, the Luftwaffe and Bletchley Park

"We found it (the war) all very exciting. There was rationing…I remember my mum tearing out the coupon."  The equality of rationing appealed to many. There was a sense that everyone was doing their bit to fight the war from home. Rationing also helped a black market to thrive; ‘Spivs’ offered extra food and rare luxuries to those who could afford them. (7) "We were told by my mum…to walk down the middle of the road when it was windy" as "the slates would come sailing off the roofs and smash in the road." Housing shortages and little money meant that many didn't repair their homes. There was a neglect of numerous homes which were due for demolition under slum clearance plans before the war. (8) John recalls "areas of a huge amount of damage…everything was damaged and broken. They began clearing that in the 1950s."

“I remember somebody the same age as me saying…he used to watch the Luftwaffe come over and bomb." In the early 1940s, the Liverpool docks were a significant target for the Luftwaffe (9); however they had supply problems and a lack of aircraft reserves throughout the battle. There was a proposal for the Luftwaffe to take on a kamikaze unit, although no suicide missions took place. (10) John's dad, was "originally in Palestine, in the intelligence branch of the Royal Signals." He "was then moved to Bletchley Park, where he was one of the code breakers there." All staff signed the Official Secrets Act in 1939, and even within Bletchley Park discretion was highlighted in 1942: "Do not talk at meals. Do not talk in the transport. Do not talk travelling. Do not talk in the billet.” (11) "He wasn't allowed to talk about it…but we did notice…there were things like we had German bits in the house and codebooks."

In the 1990s, John discovered his dad's exciting history, finding great joy in seeing his name on the computers in Bletchley Park. "My mum, she worked in the censorship." Local officials used censorship and propaganda to maintain the morale of citizens during the war, helping prevent defeat. Specific details which might have caused people to lose hope were kept secret, for the spirit of the country. (12) “She used to do fire duty, watching for buildings going on fire.” The Luftwaffe dropping incendiary bombs worried the British government in particular, so they recruited 6,000 people for the Auxiliary Fire Service, and they went on duty after working their regular jobs. The establishment of temporary fire stations occurred in schools and church halls. (13) John’s mother "would walk along the main road, and the buildings would be burning either side of her."

When John visited France in the 1960s, he felt "it was as if the war had only just happened…20 years later." For many, including John, it's clear that the war had lasting effects on society and the economy, taking decades to return to a new normal.

What do you think of life in post World War Two Liverpool? Let us know below.

References

(1)   Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool_Blitz

(2) Yesterday: https://yesterday.uktv.co.uk/history/article/baby-boom/

3) Historic Liverpool: https://historic-liverpool.co.uk/liverpool-in-the-1950s/

(4) History of Housing UK: http://www.bushywood.com/building/History_House_Building_UK_WWI_WWII_Shortages.htm#:~:text=As%20with%20WW1%2C%20there%20was,had%20been%20destroyed%20by%20bombing.&text=The%20birth%20rate%20climbed%20after,shortage%20of%20the%2020th%20century

(5) Find my Past: https://www.findmypast.co.uk/1939register/why-britain-issued-gas-masks-ww2

(6) Spartacus Education: https://spartacus-educational.com/spartacus-blogURL124.htm

(7) Find my Past: https://www.findmypast.co.uk/1939register/rationing-in-britain-ww2

(8) The History of Council Housing: https://fet.uwe.ac.uk/conweb/house_ages/council_housing/print.htm

9) WW2 People’s War-https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/15/a3237815.shtml

(10) Facts about the German Luftwaffe- https://www.historyhit.com/facts-about-the-german-luftwaffe/

(11) Wikipedia- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bletchley_Park#:~:text=All%20staff%20signed%20the%20Official,not%20talk%20in%20the%20billet.

(12) My Learning- https://www.mylearning.org/stories/censorship-and-propaganda-in-ww2/483?#:~:text=World%20War%20Two%20affected%20the,in%20Britain%20in%20many%20ways.&text=For%20this%20reason%2C%20local%20officials,the%20morale%20of%20the%20country

(13) Spartacus Education- https://spartacus-educational.com/2WWincendiary.htm